tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-88092781824732480962024-02-18T22:14:05.169-08:00B For Bookbforbook Provides you the books, free solution manuals, Articles, Reviews, Critics and Much more.Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.comBlogger326125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-20323655778370711082012-07-20T03:19:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.378-07:00Role of Human Resource Management - Contemporary Time<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The purpose of this report is to identify the latest trends in the “Role of Human Resource Management”. HRM is defined as “a science which manages the employees in an organization in order to achieve organization objectives.” The ‘Role of HRM’ means the ‘purpose’ for which HRM actually exists in an organization; and the ‘work’ that it is expected to do. This report illustrates how the purpose of HRM has shifted from a ‘support function for senior management’ to being a ‘key player in strategy making and strategy implementation’. The report also considers examples of organizations who have adopted this shift in the roles of HRM, and also considers the benefits and shortcomings of the new roles. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The traditional role of Human Resource Management (or Personnel management) has been as a clerical, support function for senior management. HRM has only been expected to <i>execute </i>policies, deal with paperwork and administration, and do other mundane and mechanical tasks. These tasks have included only the procedural works involved in selection, recruiting, retaining, training and performance evaluation etc. Because of the nature of these tasks, senior management has considered HR to be ‘disconnected’ with the real objectives of the company and a department that does not contribute any value to the Organization. Dissatisfaction with HR in the past has been such that organizations had started thinking of disbanding HRM completely, or outsourcing it (Ulrich 1998). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">However academia has argued that, in a globalized world, competition has increased so much that the only true competitive advantage an organization can now have, is its Human Capital, and for this reason doing away with HR is out of the question. At the turn of the millennium, Dave Ulrich (1997; 1998) suggested new roles which he believed could better utilize the potential of Human Capital. These new roles were for HRM to act as ‘Strategic partners’, as ‘Change Agents’, as ‘Administrative Expert’, and as ‘Employee advocates’ for the organization. Ulrich’s model has continued to evolve over time and is still being gradually adopted by organizations (Bowen et al 2002; Ulrich 2005; Wright 2008).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Of the four roles mentioned above, the ‘Strategic Partner’ role has gained most popularity and acceptance. <i>Strategy</i> is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as ‘a plan of action designed to achieve a long-term aim’. It was suggested that HR personnel should focus on <i>delivering</i> results rather than <i>doing</i> tasks; the desired results being to align the employees and HR policies with the organization’s goals (Beer 1997; Ulrich 1997).</span></div><a name='more'></a> <o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In the strategic partner role, HRM is first of all, expected to have both a <i>deeper</i> and<i> broader</i> set of knowledge and skills. They need to have in-depth understanding of particular HR areas (they need to be HR ‘specialists’ rather than ‘generalists’), and they also need to have wider cross-discipline knowledge {for example knowledge of Finance and Marketing}. Being Strategic Partners would also require HRM to have a comprehensive knowledge of the industry, knowledge of Market demands and knowledge of all of the organization’s departments. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Equipped with this knowledge, HRM is to participate in the process of building and implementing business strategy. They are to advise management on the impact of HRM strategies upon the organization as a whole, to identify how to achieve organizational goals <i>through</i> the workforce and to mold HR policies to achieve strategic objectives (Ulrich 1998). Many practical examples of the strategic role have been realized: for example when senior management at Colgate was working on a strategy to increase Revenues, their HRM implemented a compensation system that depended upon ‘growth in sales’, arguing that workforce will increase productivity and quality in order to achieve the growth.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Next, the ‘employee champion’ role of HRM will be explained. As has been stated before, in the current state of globalization, cut-throat competition, economic downturn and technological advancement, Human Capital is the only competitive advantage that an organization can sustain. However to take advantage of Human capital, HRM must ensure a committed, productive, satisfied and motivated workforce that is aligned with the interests of the organization (Ulrich 1998). An example of the lack of alignment can be a dissatisfied, hourly paid, worker who (acting in his own interest) will only wish to ‘pass time’ to make his salary; on the other hand an ‘aligned’ worker will think of the betterment of the company and will work to the full of his ability. To achieve this alignment, HRM needs to attend to employee needs, solve their problems, avoid confrontations and convey employee concerns to senior management. A practical example of HRM in the ‘employee champion’ role is Hewlett Packard (HP) which carries out regular surveys of employees to hear their concerns and then takes step to address them. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">More recent trends in the ‘employee champion’ role includes things like: HRM introducing flexible working-hours policies so that workers can achieve better work-life balance by enhancing communication between management and employees so that issues and concerns can be quickly realized and solved, before they have any detrimental effect on workforce morale. HRM is also attempting to create a social culture in the organization that is desirable, friendly and fair so that people can fit into it more readily and feel a sense of belonging to the organization, helping employees to develop their careers independently of the organization. With these measures in place, employees would believe that the Organization is sincere and beneficial to them, and so they would be motivated to work for organizational benefits rather than in their own interests (increased productivity). (Ulrich 2005)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Now the ‘Change Agent’ role of HRM will be considered. The world is moving at a tremendous pace and to keep up with competition organizations need to cope with continuous change. Unfortunately people always have a natural ‘fear’ and ‘reluctance’ to change and this can hamper progress. Ulrich proposed that HR personnel should be made responsible for creating a framework and strategy to allow for ‘change’ to happen easily and smoothly at an organization. To do this, HRM must take the workforce into trust, it must illustrate to them that change is actually beneficial, and that company values will always kept in mind while accepting change.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In the “administrative expert” role, HRM personnel are expected to perform its functional role (traditional role) more efficiently by taking responsibility of the results and impact on the organization. HRM should also undertake activities to reengineer the work processes and to increase the efficiency by hiring, training and rewarding those workers who achieve the desire goals of organization. (Ulrich 1997)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">More recent advancements in the strategic role involve actually measuring the outcomes of HR strategies and adapting to improve the results. For example, Huselid, Becker and Beatty devised a variation of the Balance score card method, which is called the HR or Workforce Scorecard (Husseild et al 2005). This method involves judging a certain set of categories: ‘Workforce Mindset’, ‘Workforce Competencies’, ‘Workforce Behavior’ and ‘Workforce Success’, by looking at several more readily measurable qualities. These measurable qualities could include for example, the extent to which employees identify with organization objectives (a measure of Workforce Mindset), or the percentage of employees with the most demanded skills (a measure of Workforce Competencies), or the percentage decrease in customer complaints (a measure of Workforce Success). By answering several of these questions, HRM can get an idea of where it stands in the respective categories and can then focus its effort to improve in those areas (Huselid et al 2005). For example if workers do not personally feel for the organization’s objectives then measures should be taken to increase loyalty and sense of belonging; these can include culture building activities and rewards based upon company performance. Similarly if Workforce Competency score is low, HRM needs to focus on providing training in the most demanded skill areas.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Further to facilitate the strategic role of HRM, another contemporary trend is the wide adoption of technology such as e-HRM, Human Resource Information Systems (HRIS), Software as a Service (SaaS) and Virtual HRM (V-HRM). The idea mainly is for automated systems and networks to take over the old functional and operational tasks and hence allow HR management more time to focus on the strategic side of their work, additionally these systems also save costs and time for the organization as a whole and boost productivity.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Additionally technology can also contribute more directly to the strategic activities. For example databases and spreadsheets can make available more accurate and relevant data on costs and value which can be used by HR management in decision making (for example doing Cost-Benefit analysis of Training.}. Similarly IT solutions exist for efficient implementation of strategy through ‘software assisted’ organization and planning.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Surveys show that in the current age, majority of the companies have adopted some form of electronic solution for HRM (CIPD 2005). For example Cancer Research <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">UK</st1:country-region></st1:place> is using an electronic recruiting system and Marks and Spencer uses a fully automated, electronic payroll and pension system (Parry Tyson 2011). Hewlett-Packard uses interactive online training programs for its employees and British Petroleum uses portals and forums to allow communication between the employees and management (Ulrich 2005).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; margin-left: 0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 394.65pt; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Nearing the conclusion of this report, we will note that the new roles of HRM have several benefits. The new roles, unlike the traditional ones, create respect, credibility and acceptance for HRM and ensure that Organizations no longer consider HRM to be expendable. By helping with framing strategies and achieving results through the workforce, they benefit Senior Management. By adding value to the organization and by improving productivity, they benefit shareholders. By ensuring that HR strategy is focus on Market demands, they benefit for customers. And finally by providing fair and desirable work-environment they benefit employees. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">However whereas the new roles introduce several; benefits, they also have several disadvantage associated with them. For example, senior and line management is not always welcoming to the idea of HRM participating in strategy making; indeed they might have prejudices against the department and may tend to disagree with the HRM’s opinions. Conflicts might also arise between the ‘strategic partner’ and ‘employee champion’ role of HRM; employee interests and management interests can sometimes conflict and so confusion and suspicion can arise among the workforce as to ‘whose side is HRM taking’. Finally with so much focus on a cross-discipline knowledge, HR specialists and a strategic role for HRM, the question invariably arises as to <i>who</i> is left to deal with the old operational and administrative tasks of HRM, which still need to be done to keep the organization running. This is what happened in Unisys (IT services provider) when too much strategic approach was used and management found it difficult to consult the concerned HR personnel when issues relating to employees arose. Indeed several observes have reported the deficiency in operational roles that is being created by assigning new Strategic roles to HRM (Francis Keegan 2006) <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Although technology is slowly proving helpful in taking over the procedural roles, but problems exist with it as well. One of the issues is that the benefits of technology are perhaps largely theoretical and the results, especially strategic ones, have not been properly quantified, measured or researched. In the few cases in which results have been measures the findings sometimes go against expectations: showing relatively minor cost saving and indeterminate effect on achieving strategic goals. (Parry Tyson 2011) It has been suggested that difficulty of use and resistance to accept change are some of the causes of the causes behind this lack of results. (Huub Tanya Mandy 2007). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Human Capital is the most valuable and most under-utilized asset of any organization. Human talent is the only competitive advantage by which an organization can address to<span style="color: red;"> </span>new challenges of change, globalization and workforce diversity and increase the productivity not only in the short-run but also in the long-run. The contemporary trends listed above can enable management to make better use of this asset in order to increase value for all stakeholders of the organization if carried out efficiently. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Now coming to HRM perspective in Pakistan, the science of HRM only came known in Pakistan after the incident of 9/11.During the last decade huge amounts of foreign aid flowed into the country resulting in the rapid growth of economy. Thus the private sector expanded exponentially and <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:country-region></st1:place> became an attractive place for foreign investors, including MNCs. The management techniques of HRM started being imported to the country. Therefore the need for having legitimate practices of HRM in local private sector also grew in order to sustain this development process.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The culture generally prevalent in Pakistani organizations is of centralized decision making with uneven power distribution in favor of top executive management. Moreover employees avoid confrontation with seniors and resort to sycophancy in order to get good performance appraisals and promotions. This type of culture has certainly hampered the development of HRM in <st1:placetype w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:placetype>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A female HR manager in an organization recounts her experience in this manner:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“I faced resistance from old employees and from top management too. Resistance from top management as they do not understand the true nature of HR. At one place the top management used to forward every problem to HR whether it had a link with HR or not. Production is not up to the mark, problem comes to HR. Security cameras not working, and problem comes to HR”<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">But even after all such limitations, the GLOBE research explains that employees in <st1:placetype w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:placetype> desire more egalitarian culture and the organizations are generally moving towards the strategic role of HRM with a slow pace. Ms. Sanam Mujeeb Sheikh, Manager HR, KSB Pumps, explains:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“Scope of HR Management in <st1:placetype w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:placetype> is very bright. Operationally HR has become very strong now as almost every organization is following the basic practices of HR Management. However, from a global perspective we are still at the primary stage of HR Management. The HR department of any organization should be a strategic business partner for the company. Human Resource is the bridge between the employer and employee and this makes the role of HR department important.”<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The above statements of professional managers attests to the fact that the private sector in <st1:placetype w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:placetype> have come to realize the importance of a fully functional HRM department in an organization. Therefore we can conclude that the role of HRM in <st1:placetype w:st="on">Pakistan</st1:placetype> is still in the developing stage but the future looks promising and organizations are more willing to adopt new strategic functions of HRM. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 7.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b>Written By: Asim Ali Dogar (Bsc LUMS)</b></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-3850342606103709002012-07-12T08:00:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.378-07:00Draft Law and Religion In Pakistan - Review<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This article serves the purpose of highlighting the impact of religious laws in Pakistan. This article diverts the reader’s attention towards the implementation and interpretation of these laws without going into the finer and complex nuances of either law or religion. The text of the article suggests that the promulgation of legislation enacted as Islamic in Pakistan has been used by the state to control and discipline the imagination of its citizens and to limit the political choice of populace. Unfortunately the politics on the name of Islam is also a common practice to crush political opposition and gain legitimacy, especially for autocratic regimes. The alarming issue here is that these laws served nothing good but these laws affect ordinary citizens on daily basis. Social fabric and plurality of Pakistani society is badly ruptured. Contrary to the claims only negative changes are observed after the consecutive attempts to make Pakistan an Islamic state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The article highlights the problem of identity crisis and the confusion and disillusionment regarding the legal and political doctrine in Pakistan. The confusion in the minds of masses on the ideology of Pakistan as an Islamic or secular state is still not solved. One of the main reasons of this confusion is also the politics through which a separate state Pakistan was achieved by Jinnah and Muslim League but before the boundary commission the politics of Jinnah revolved around Islam and his 11<sup>th</sup> august speech which clearly states Pakistan as a secular state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">After creation of a new state in Muslims dominant western regions as Pakistan, Muslim league was not in position to dodge people on the question of religion. Islam was the driving force throughout the whole process of partition. The Lahore Resolution in 1940 and the elections of 1945-46 were the two prominent and notable incidents which depict the political situation at that time. These two events show a very good picture of how Islam was used to mobilize Muslims of Indian subcontinent for the cause of a separate state. This tactic for mobilization worked very effectively and Muslim league gathered a huge support of Muslims throughout India.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Soon after partition a demand for incorporation of Islamic laws in constitution and for bringing different sets of laws in conformity with Islam continued. The dominant feature in all the three constitutions of Pakistan was injunction of Islamic principles. It was assured in all these constitution that anything contrary to Islam’s basic principles would be invalid even though the state commitment in this regard varied greatly. The state used Islam as a special tool for political negotiations, legitimizing itself, and gaining political and moral support of masses for itself on various occasions.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><a name='more'></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The article informs its readers that the post-partition state of Pakistan inherited the colonial state structure as its very first constitution was ‘<i>Government Act of India 1935</i>’ with minute changes in it. To understand the Pakistani state structure the need is to analyze the colonial state structure as well. The colonial state structure was designed to exploit the resources and labor force of India for commercial and economic interests of the Empire. Legislation backed by force of implementing machinery was the device to control and to amend the behavior of the indigenous people in response to the colonial exploitation. The violence of state and severe penalties imposed by laws made sure that the native population never disturbs the interests of the colonial regime.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The article suggests that from jurisprudential perspective, there has been much confusion and a variety of postulations claiming the doctrine governing Pakistan’s legal structure. The most prominent is the basic structure argument, that pursuant to the events leading to creation of Pakistan, and subsequent State Acts such as the objectives’ resolution, the preamble of all constitution, the state has a certain minimal structure that may be termed its basic structure, comprising if such inherent principles as being Islamic, which cannot be changed. Another view that courts have explored is the hierarchy of applicable law, which differs under different regimes or political setups.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Under the military, the military law takes over any other, the Civil Code and Islamic taking turns in hierarchy. During the setup labeled as the civil rule, determination of norms is such a nature as may be observed same to one that is secular. The article points toward the fact that at numerous instances Islamic law is applied as a tool of interpretation of the Civil Code or the legislation and applicable law. Judges, in employing the law, have and have not used religious principles in their legal reasoning. Many a times these adjudicate political issues.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Finally, the author in his article highlights various legislations, legislative acts and amendments which are stained in the color of Islam under different constitutions and political and military regimes. The author in his article mentions objective resolution and argued that it has found expression in all three constitutions of Pakistan as a preamble. It was made as a substantive part of the current constitution under Article 2A through a presidential ordinance by General Zia in 1985. The current laws against <i>Ahmadis</i> were never seen before 73’s constitution. They were not even the part of original 73’s constitution. They were enacted via 2<sup>nd</sup> amendment deeming them Non-Muslims by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in 1974. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">After, Bhutto’s government was over thrown by General. Zia a new wave of Islamization was observed in the country. The most notable legislative acts through Presidential Ordinances under Islamization process are the Zina, Qazaf, Prohibition and Property Ordinances. In 1984, an ordinance under title of ‘<i>Anti-Islamic Activities of Qadyani Group Ordinance’</i> was promulgated which added something very brutal and against the basic ‘<i>Fundamental Rights’</i> which are granted by the constitution of Pakistan to its every citizen. New sections 298B and 298C were introduced in Pakistan Penal Code, refraining and penalizing <i>Ahmadis</i> in case of proffesing their religious obligations. Several institutions under Islamic titles which are still enjoying constitution protection, like Federal Shari’ at Court and Council of Islamic Ideology, were created.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Concluding and analyzing the current legal framework of Pakistan it is evident that Pakistan’s legal system is derived from English Common Law and is based on the much amended 1973’ Constitution and Islamic law. The rule of law in this country has suffered due to the reason of holding the political setup by military. Political process and democratic governance in this country is frequently disturbed by military take over. Tensions between the inherent common Law System and the Islamic law based on Quran are also there. An unexpected outcome of all this practice was that by relying on a policy grounded in Islam, the state fomented factionalism.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-63219628101496054902012-07-12T07:15:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.378-07:00PAKISTAN’S EQUITY DERIVATIVE MARKET<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">This article is an in-depth look at the state of the equity derivative market in Pakistan. It examines the current market state, compares its performance with those of India, and offers explanations for the problems faced by the market. In the end, the writer offers several recommendations on how the various regulatory bodies and institutions can seek to improve the state of the derivative market.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">We start of by defining exactly what a derivative is. A derivative is a financial instrument whose value and cash flows depend on the value and cash flows of an underlying asset. Examples of such instruments are forward and future contracts, options, swaps etc. However, in this presentation we only consider the equity derivative market of Pakistan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The derivatives market in Pakistan was started in 2001, with the introduction of single stock deliverable futures. Since then, various other instruments have been introduced, such as cash settled futures, index futures (based on KSE 30 index) and 7 day cash settled futures.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">However, despite these developments the performance of the Pakistan equity derivatives market remains poor, as compared to India (which started its derivatives market in 2000), and other developing countries. The trading volume is 3-4% of the spot market volume, which is very low. Also, most of the investors in this market are individual and small investors. Institutional participation is very subdued, and only limited number of banks, NFBCs, and companies take part in this market. Further, the single stock deliverable future remains the most popular instrument traded, with almost 100% volume attributed to this. Other instruments like cash settled futures and index futures are traded minimally, despite their myriad advantages.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The author bases her reasons on a survey she conducted on reasons for the low participation of institutions in the market. According to her, the major reason for low institutional involvement is the lack of knowledge and technical expertise, along with internal policies prohibiting investment in derivatives. Further, the lack of liquidity is another factor, and the fact that due to technological improvements, the margin calls of derivative investments now come directly to institutions.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The author finally gives some recommendations, which include increasing investor knowledge and human capital development to increase expertise, as well as developing clear and string risk management policies for institutions. Finally, she recommends that public sector get more involved in these markets to improve liquidity.<o:p></o:p></span><br /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span><br /><br /></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-24059174953207467652012-07-12T07:06:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00Can China's Currency Go Global - Commentary<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The article “Can China’s Currency Go Global” by John H. Makin considers whether the yuan could replace the dollar as an international reserve. The author delves into the current economic market of the Yuan and its financial viability, while also reflecting on its future. He looks at both sides of the coin, and after due deliberation reaches his conclusion.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The fact which most supports the globalization of the Yuan is <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:place>’s rapid emergence as a global economic superpower. As the second largest economy in the world, <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region> accounted for about 90 percent of global growth in 2009. However, the author contends that it cannot be assumed that <st1:country-region w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></st1:country-region>’s economic achievements will translate completely into its financial markets. <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region> has not yet achieved financial superiority and the Chinese securities market as yet poses no threat to the <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:country-region w:st="on">US</st1:country-region></st1:place>, even though large companies such as Caterpillar and McDonald’s have issued Yuan-denominated bonds. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Another issue that the author looks at is the growing use of Chinese currency for trade. According to <st1:place w:st="on"><st1:city w:st="on">Makin</st1:city>, <st1:country-region w:st="on">China</st1:country-region></st1:place> is heading towards internationalization of the Yuan and has thereby expanded the scheme that allowed imports and exports to be invoiced in the Yuan, with trade settled in Yuan between June and November 2010 equaling 340 billion Yuan. However, the widespread use of Yuan as a medium of exchange and unit of account (since goods are being invoiced in Yuan) does not necessitate its adoption as a reserve currency. The reason cited for this by the author are the restrictions imposed by the Chinese government.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The adoption of the Yuan as an international reserve must be preceded by a guarantee of full convertibility by the Chinese government. It would have to allow capital outflows and respect property rights. Essentially, lack of full convertibility means that to invest in capital (i.e. buy an equity stake, purchase an asset or take part in any merger/acquisition) in <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> you need to have an investment holding company in <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> which requires minimum capital of US$30 million.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Thus, Makin argues that for the Yuan to emerge as a global reserve currency not only is full convertibility imperative, rather it must also forego all further controls on global capital flows and avoid relentless currency intervention.</span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In his conclusion, the author uses the words ‘evolution, not revolution’, i.e. the Yuan will continue to flourish and develop, however, due to the aforementioned factors it cannot replace the US dollar an as international reserve currency for the foreseeable future.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Analyzing the article, and the ideas presented by the author, we can see that the author points out that steady economic growth has provided China with an opportunity to contest against the US dollar’s role as an international reserve currency and in June 2010 China’s government promoted trade to be conducted in Yuan through the ‘Yuan settlement scheme’. However, according to our research, it would not be very wise to expect continuous economic growth in the future. As <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> has an export based economy, the existing global crisis could severely harm demand for its exports. In September 2010 exports rose by 17.1% but fell from a 24.5% growth in the previous month (BBC). This is in line with Makin’s view that present economic achievements notwithstanding, <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>’s currency cannot be seen as an international reserve in the near future. We agree with this viewpoint, since looking at the ground realities it is very difficult to expect the Yuan to supersede the Dollar in the near future. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Also, currently <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>’s USD reserves amount to a high proportion of the total reserves, because <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> has been buying dollars in order to keep the exchange rate low. However in order to successfully globalize its currency it needs to build its metal reserves (gold and silver). <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>’s current Gold holdings are 1,054 tonnes while <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> needs around 8000 tonnes to surpass US’ holdings of 8,133 tonnes. In last ten years <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> has accumulated only 550 tonnes. If <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> starts buying gold from the international market, rise in demand of gold would result in high prices which will increase china’s cost of purchasing gold. So <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>’s claim to buy 10,000 tonnes in next 10 years seems unlikely. (International Business Times)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The author further points out that in order to promote internationalization of <st1:place w:st="on">Yuan</st1:place>, <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> allowed banks in <st1:place w:st="on">Hong Kong</st1:place> to accept deposits in Yuan. However, <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>’s restrictions on capital flows leave people with no incentive to hold Yuan as a reserve currency. We agree with this point completely which is further validated by <span style="letter-spacing: 0.1pt;">John Peace, chairman of the British bank Standard Chartered, "I don’t see in the short term the Renminbi replacing the Dollar, what I do see the Renminbi becoming as important as the dollar”.(Voice of America) Also, according to a New York Times article (New York Times), the banking sector in China is not at a mature enough stage to be able to handle the load of full convertibility which does not bode well for the Yuan’s role as a global currency.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Another fact which supports Makin’s view is that the acceptability of Yuan as a reserve currency in the future would depend a lot on the expected inflation rate in <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>. The fact that China’s inflation is expected to rise in the future, primarily because of artificially fixing exchange rates at a low level, does not place China in a position to contest against USD. Rising inflation would reduce the purchasing power of Yuan. On the other hand <st1:place w:st="on">USA</st1:place>’s current and expected inflation rates are less than <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place>’s. So it makes more sense to invest in US dollar denominated securities rather than Yuan. (Forecast Chart.com, Trading Economics.com)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Hence, in conclusion, for a currency to turn global it needs high liquidity, central bank credibility, strong internal financial market, and strong bond markets. <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> has not fulfilled these conditions completely yet. Its financial markets are government controlled and people’s Bank of China does not hold the required credibility. Consequently Chinese currency has a long way to go before it turns global. However, we cannot completely dismiss the Yuan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><b><u>BIBLIOGRAPHY</u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> “<st1:place w:st="on"><span style="letter-spacing: -0.75pt;">China</span></st1:place><span style="letter-spacing: -0.75pt;">'s trade growth decelerates amid global slowdown”. October 13</span>, 2011. BBC Com. (</span><a href="http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15285105" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-15285105</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 18.0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">“Gold Reserves: Tough for <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place> to beat US”. April 13, 2010. International Business Times.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> (</span><a href="http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/19551/20100413/gold-reserves-tough-china-beat-us.htm"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://www.ibtimes.com/articles/19551/20100413/gold-reserves-tough-china-beat-us.htm</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></st1:place></st1:place></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><st1:place w:st="on"><st1:place w:st="on"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%;">Heda Bayron</span></st1:place><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%;"> , <st1:place w:st="on">China</st1:place></span></st1:place><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%;"> Pushing for Yuan to be Global Currency. January 24, 2011. Voice of <st1:place w:st="on">America</st1:place>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">(<a href="http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/China-Pushing-for-Yuan-to-be-Global-Currency-But-Business-Leaders-Say-Not-Yet-114475409.html">http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/China-Pushing-for-Yuan-to-be-Global-Currency-But-Business-Leaders-Say-Not-Yet-114475409.html</a>)</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 8.5pt; letter-spacing: .1pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">David Barboza, “China Pushing for Yuan to be Global Currency”. February 10, 2011. Global Business, New York Times.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">(</span><a href="http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/business/global/11yuan.html?_r" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/business/global/11yuan.html?_r</span></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">...)</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> <!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Trading Economics (</span><a href="https://campusmail.lums.edu.pk/owa/redir.aspx?C=aceb0e50e73c43699e0afd3114da6aea&URL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.tradingeconomics.com%2fchina%2finflation-cpi" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://www.tradingeconomics.com/china/inflation-cpi</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /><!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><br /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Forcast Chart </span><a href="https://campusmail.lums.edu.pk/owa/redir.aspx?C=aceb0e50e73c43699e0afd3114da6aea&URL=http%3a%2f%2fforecastchart.com%2fforecast-inflation-rate.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">http://forecastchart.com/forecast-inflation-rate.html</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">)<o:p></o:p></span></div><br /></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-44808861538754716532012-06-24T07:17:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00Remembering the Legend - Dev Anand<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhW1zyZWBnKfDAXij6h0tAtQ3j6lIVqXuz0i5KlGNZIxhygIVxn0RZ-R1J5ez-fKX3t-hsYGR4_cLivUXCYeFktqSLC6LhPXXOOwPFUna0bZQKDrKnj3dXglAWvmmZL4PDsxjshHeRMgP8/s1600/Dev-Anand.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="315" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhW1zyZWBnKfDAXij6h0tAtQ3j6lIVqXuz0i5KlGNZIxhygIVxn0RZ-R1J5ez-fKX3t-hsYGR4_cLivUXCYeFktqSLC6LhPXXOOwPFUna0bZQKDrKnj3dXglAWvmmZL4PDsxjshHeRMgP8/s320/Dev-Anand.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">It is easy to mimic those that set themselves apart. Perhaps few have been mimicked, caricatured and parodied as much as Dev Anand and that too over several generations. It is testimony to the longevity of the man, the actor, the writer, director, and producer. To be considered as one the triumvirate of the Indian film industry in the 50s and 60s along with Raj Kapoor and Dilip Kumar speaks volumes of his popularity and contribution.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Dev Anand's career spread over three innings. The first innings was pre-70s and defined him really and catapulted him as one of the three superstars. I have little re-collection of this period, except for a few movies I saw much later in life. </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">His second innings, started with a bang with "Johnny Mera Naam" in 1970. Some film historians also claim it was this movie that made Hema Malini famous. If Rajesh Khanna had teenage girls and married woman swooning over him, Dev Anand had his fair share too. And then were guys like Amar, my next door neighbour, who would insist on wearing these ghastly yellow bell-bottom trousers that Dev Anand wore and made famous in one of his movies.</span><br /><a name='more'></a><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">1971 saw the release of the cult movie "Hare Rama Hare Krishna". I recall being on a boat ride at the "Gateway of India" with my family on a dark Sunday evening and they were playing "Dum Maro Dum" the famous song from the movie during the ride. It was a surreal experience. A very topical film (showcased hippie culture), based on a terrific and moving storyline, backed by excellent acting and music that achieved instant cult status, it also gave the Indian film industry its first glamour girl - Zeenat Aman. I dare say, I consider this to be one of my personal favourites. </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Dev Anand continued to make several movies through rest of the 70s, but the one that I enjoyed was the 1978 Des Pardes. Again, highly topical, the movie was based on illegal immigration and exploitation of labour from Punjab to the UK, the movie had everything that one came to expect from a Navketan starrer (the name of his production banner). Above all, it shot to fame Rajesh Roshan, the music director, and introduced Tina Munim.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">Dev Anand's third innings that I place in the 80s and onwards is pretty much forgetable. True to his production banner - Navketan, which means newness, he continued to make movies that had different and topical storylines, but somehow he seemed to have lost his ability to connect with the audience. Some of the movies were so bad, I could not sit through its entire length. When asked on his reaction to repeated box office failures and criticism, he would often respond that he did not care as such and would continue to make movies based on his convictions. An artist that does not care for audience feedback is a narcissist, but I dont think Dev saab was one. I think his sheer passion for film making overshadowed everything else, and he just had to go on and go on till death stopped him.</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #222222; font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 18px;">It was on a Shivrathri night, that my college hostel gang and I were watching Guide at a theatre in Vadodara. The song "Aaj phir jeene ki tamanna hai" burst forth on the screen. In unison, most of us were out of our seats, throwing coins at the screen - it was the first and only time, I did such a thing, but now, looking back it perhaps was a good way of paying tribute to this evergreen entertainer.</span> </div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-27909039007065003362012-06-14T23:55:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00Terminal Illness and Religiosity: Finding the Link<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Religion has been given a paramount importance in cultures across the globe. It has been considered an integral part of cultural beliefs system. Religion plays a significant role in shaping individuals` worldviews. However, the level of attachment with one`s own religious beliefs varies from person to person. The level of attachment with religion has a strong relationship with one`s life experiences. Certain life calamities can take one closer/away to/from religion. As religion often concerns questions related to life hereafter, individuals tend to develop an intimate relation with it whenever they face life-threatening crisis in their lives. Terminal illness is one such unfortunate life events which makes people to search for answers to questions related to death. This paper seeks to investigate the role of religion in the lives of terminally-ill people. Based on the findings of our research on three terminally-ill people, this paper will argue that people tend to turn towards religion more when they are faced with life-threatening illness. The level of religiosity of patients increases during the course of their illness in terms of their greater engagement with different religious practices (religious text and rituals etc). While the role of religion in the lives of terminally–ill people has been studied mostly from psychological perspective, this article seeks to counter the balance and tends to look into the role of religion in the lives of terminally-ill people from an anthropological point of view. This implies to investigate in what different or similar ways religion plays out its role in the lives of terminally-ill people and what kinds of meanings people attached with it. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> A two months fieldwork was carried out for this article in Lahore, during which three terminally-ill patients were interviewed. Two of the research participants were cancer patients while one was a patient of AIDS. Lahore, the capital city of the province Punjab, is an important economic hub of Pakistan and hence attracts a large number of people from the surrounding areas for its better job prospects. Majority of the population is middle and lower-middle class and most of the earning people population either has government jobs or have their own small business set-ups. Like elsewhere in Pakistan, a large part of the population is Muslim with Sunnis making the bulk of them. Other sects among the Muslims in the city include Shias, Ahmadis, and a small number of Ismailis. All of these sects follow various Islamic tenets in various different ways from one another. However, our research only focused on Sunnis mainly because of their greater proportion and hence easy availability in the city. While most of the people strongly identify themselves as Muslim, it is their specific sect within Islam to which they feel much strongly. As compare to other sects, in Sunni Islam the prime importance is given to Quran and the sayings of prophet Mohammad (PBUH) in religious matters. They are required to pray at five specified times in a day. Quran is the holy book and its recitation is considered an act of great value and piety.</span></div><a name='more'></a><br /><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The Turning point</span></b></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Forty-years-old Munir*<b> </b>was living a normal life with his wife and three children in a small house near the main market. He was happy with his life as he was able to run his family smoothly because of his government job. It was in December, 2011 when he got diagnosed with blood cancer and all of a sudden a happy life became a pipe dream for him. He could not believe what had happened to him but it was a bitter reality which he had to accept anyway. However, except his wife, he did not tell anyone about his illness. He calls his life prior to being diagnosed with cancer a “normal” life. He was not a “religious” man whom as he said “prays five times a day and recites the holy Quran”. While he was not regular in his different religious practices, he would consider religion as an important part of life. Religion was important for him in theoretical terms but not in terms of performance and practice. He considered himself to be distant from the religion prior to his illness. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Salim is fifty-five years old and lives with his wife, two daughters, and three sons. He owns a footwear shop from which he earns enough to support his family. Two of his sons also work which makes it easy to fulfill household expenses. Salim was diagnosed with lung cancer in June, 2011 and since then he has been living a fearful life as doctors have declared his cancer to be in an advance stage. Like Munir, Salim too recalls that he was not regular in his religious practices. Though he would follow religion, he never gave it the degree of importance that he started to it after being diagnosed. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Adil is forty-three and until recently worked overseas as a labor. He was abroad when doctors told him to get a diagnostic test for AIDS and unfortunately his test results were positive. Soon after being diagnosed with AIDS he decided to return home and pursue his treatment in Pakistan because of relatively cheaper treatment expenditure here. In Pakistan his family consists of his wife, two sons, parents, and a sister. However, his wife left him soon after she came to know that Adil has return with an illness which she linked, as Adil said, with his bad relations with other women abroad. Adil suspected that his wife might have left him because of her unpleasant relationships with his sister and mother as she would complain to him about his (Adil`s) mother and sister behavior towards her. In terms religious life, Adil calls himself to be distantly away from religion prior to his illness. He did not consider religion as an important part of his life and always thought of it as a <i>fazool</i>, useless thing. Religion became of a secondary importance to him when he went abroad nine years ago. Adil blamed the circle of his non-religious friends for him being a non-religious. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Prayers: an essential component**<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Munir sees praying five times a day an integral of part of Islam. Ever since he got the illness, Munir always makes sure that he does not miss any prayer. Hearing about his illness the first thing he did was to go to a nearby mosque and offer <i>nafl, </i>extra (optional) prayer<i>. </i>He said that he knew that his life would never become like before. He stayed in the mosque until the <i>zuhr, </i>afternoon<sup> </sup>prayers and all of that time he just kept on praying and asking Allah for his pardon. To Munir, it is not just parying five times a day rather it is all about praying from the core of one`s heart. Also, he thinks that praying at home does not bring that much <i>sawab, </i>reward which a prayer offered in the mosque does. Munir would rarely, generally only on Friday, go to the mosque nearby his home. Before his illness, going to mosque and saying prayer was one of the hardest things for Munir to do. He would spend his lunch and <i>zuhr</i> prayer break in talking to his colleagues at his job place. Some of his colleagues were regular in prayers and they would offer their <i>zuhr</i> prayer during the prayer break. Though Munir would sometimes offer his prayer at office, he never went to mosque during his prayer break, except on Fridays. However, this has changed ever since his being diagnosed with cancer and now he finds going to mosque a source of great satisfaction.<i> Pehle masjid jane ka dil nahi karta tha lekin ab masjid se bahar dil nahi lagta, </i>earlier I would find it hard to go to mosque but now I do not feel good outside the mosque, he says. Now he is one of his colleagues who regularly go to mosque for offering prayers. He prefers to remain in mosque rather than talking with his colleagues. Praying at mosque is not only a source of comfort for Munir but it also helps him to spend his whole day in a scheduled way. His life has become more productive with it as he is able now to manage different tasks more wisely. Earlier he would not be able to carry out his daily tasks according to schedule, he would often lag behind in completion of different tasks but now it is completely different for him. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Salim, too, has started offering prayer more regularly as compare to earlier when he was not diagnosed with the disease. Although he prefers offering prayer at mosque to home, he is not punctual in going to mosque. Ever since his illness, Salim tries not to miss any prayer and to go to mosque as often as possible. But sometimes it is not just possible for him to go to mosque especially for <i>isha, </i>evening prayer because of the mosque being away from his home. It is not just offering the prayer which has been increased for Salim, the pattern of offering the prayer has also changed for him. As compare to earlier, now he prays for a longer time. He says, the more time he spends on praying the more he becomes oblivious of his illness. Also, he has started telling his children to pray regularly and often takes his youngest son to mosque with him. With going to mosque Salim has developed a new habit of attending <i>bayaans</i>, religious sermons which are often given at after <i>maghreb </i>prayer. Attending these sermons is a way for him to learn about Islam, <i>es se bohat si nai cheezon ka pata chal jata hai, </i>it (sermon) helps in getting know a lot of new things (about Islam). After being aware of different new things, Salim tries to incorporate those things in his life. He tries to follow what has been said in the sermon. However, his not being punctual in going to mosque makes it impossible for him to attend every session of the sermons and hence he has bought <i>Fazail-e-Amal</i>, a book which contains sayings of the prophet Mohammad (PBUH) concerning different religious matters. One of his sons reads excerpts from the book each night at home while all the family members are present to listen to it. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> For Adil, his attitude towards prayers has not been changed much since his illness. He considers himself not a religious man who “spends most of his time in mosque”. Owing to his life abroad where he had friends circle consisting of both Muslims and non-Muslims and where his Muslim friends never cared about offering prayers, Adil too had never offered his prayer abroad. Even after his illness he did not feel the urge to pray. It was not until his return to Pakistan that he started offering prayer regularly. Most of the times, Adil prays at home but sometimes he goes to mosque when his parents ask him to do so. He thinks of prayers to be of no good. Offering prayer does not offer him any comfort and most of the times he just go to mosque because his parents have asked him to go. </span></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="Default" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Search for deeper meaning</span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">People faced with an unfortunate life event are more likely to use religious scripture as a way of comfort and feeling better about their life (Koenig 2002). Religious scripture being consider a divinely thing gives people the hope that it may help them in their trouble. Munir regularly recites the holy Quran. He gives a paramount importance to Quran and considers it a great source of knowledge for people. Although he gives importance to the whole Quran, he recites certain selected verses from the Quran on daily basis. He has made it his routine to recite the ninety-nine names of God twice a day, in the morning and at night before he goes to sleep. However, he further gives more preference to certain names of God over others. He has memorized certain Quranic verses which he reads on daily basis. About the selection of certain verses he said that he chooses the verses with meanings which he thinks suit his purpose, <i>mein woh ayats hifz krta hun jes ki maani muhje sahi lage</i>, I only memorized those verses the meaning of which seem relevant to me. Similarly, Munir has memorized certain names of the God which he thinks have meanings relevant to his illness. His memorized names of God included names like <i>Al-Mohyee</i> (the life giver), <i>Al-Momeet </i>(the life taker), and <i>Al- Razzaq</i> (the provider). However, when asked why he recites the name <i>Al-Razzaq, </i>as its meaning does not concern illness, he replied that as his children are too young and he is the sole breadwinner of his family he wants God to provide for his family after his death. Along with this, Munir has also memorized certain Quranic verses which he recites whenever he finds time for it. Again, his reason for choosing certain Quranic verses was the relevance of their meanings with the purpose for which he would recite those verses. Among the Quranic verses he had memorized <i>Sura-e-Mulk</i>, which he thinks would protect him in his grave. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Munir searches for the deeper meaning of whatever he recites. For him it is the meaning of the text which makes him decide on what is to recite and what is not to. As mentioned earlier, Munir looks for such verses which he thinks have some significance and could help him through his illness. After being diagnosed with cancer he bought a copy of the Quran with Urdu translation and started to recite it with translation ever since then. He does not pickup random verses from the Quran.Whenever someone suggests him a verse from the Quran to recite the first thing he does is to look for its meaning and if he feels that the meaning of the suggested verse suits his purpose he adopts it. Ever since he has started reciting the Quran with translation, Munir has never felt the need to seek help of religious scholars for interpreting to him what has written in the Quran. Munir does not prefer translation of the Quran merely for the sake of selecting verses from the Quran for <i>wazifa</i>, repetitive recitation, but he prefers it also for understanding what has God asked people to do. He tries to regulate his life according to the teaching of the Quran. He also has a <i>tafseer</i>, an elaborated interpretation of the Quranic verses. He uses it whenever he finds any difficulty in the meaning and hence he thinks of himself as a person who does not need to consult <i>maulis</i>, Islamic religious scholars for an issue which he can resolve by himself through his interpretation guide. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Embodying the text <o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">The religious text is engaged with not only through recitation but also through embodying it through wearing amulets. Although Salim was not Quran literate, he uses different Quranic verses in the form of wearing amulets. Wrapped in black leather, Salim wears two amulets attached to a single thread hanging down through his neck. Unaware of the amulets` text, let alone its meaning, Salim has a strong belief that whatever he is wearing is of great significance. He claims, <i>es ka bohat faida hai, mein acha mehsoos krta hun, </i>it has an advantage, and I feel good with it. He says that had the amulets not of any good to him he would have thrown it. Salim believes that God never makes things harder for people; rather He provides comfort so that people could not complain of the difficulty of the <i>din</i>, religion (Islam). Salim talks of Amulets` advantage in terms of its being easy to carry and that one can have it all the times. One does not need to recite it or something it is just to be worn. For Salim, the efficacy of Amulets lies both in its being sacredness (the use of sacred Quranic text in it) and its presence with the person all the times. He does not seem to be much concerned with the meaning of his amulets` text. Rather he considers that all the verses of the Quran are equally sacred and important. To him, one can never prefer certain verses to others. That`s why he thinks of his amulets in terms of the whole Quran, <i>ye Quran-e-pak ki trha hai</i>, these (amulets) are akin to the holy Quran. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> Apart from wearing amulets, Salim also keeps <i>Surah-e-Yasin</i> in his chest-pocket. Although he cannot read it by himself, he often asks his daughter or son to read it to him loudly at night before going to sleep. In order uphold the sanctity of the amulets and <i>Surah-e-Yasin, </i>Salim puts them<i> </i>at some higher place while going to sleep. However, he has memorized certain short <i>kalmats, </i>verses, which he recites at specific times as told by people who have suggested those verse to him. Still, because of his unwariness with the Quran, he does not believe in himself to able to read those verses in the way in which they need to be recited. Owing to that, he prefers wearing amulets and keeping the <i>Yasin </i>in his pocket. He keeps the <i>Yasin </i>in his chest-pocket because he thinks that it’s the ‘heart’ of the Quran so one needs to keep it near his heart. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Medicines vs. the sarkar`s company<o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Salim regularly visits a local saint, which he calls with the name of Sakar. Whenever he finds time he visits Sarkar`s where he sits with him for hours. Salim came to know about Sarkar three months ago through one of his friends. At first he would visit Sarkar`s once in a week but later on he got too close to him and started visiting him more often. Sarkar lives nearby so it is not an issue for Salim to meet him. Sarkar has a great influence on Salim`s life and he (Salim) thinks of Sarkar as a leader and guide to him. The Sarkar`s company provides so much solace to Salim that he sometimes abandons his medicines because they do not give him that much satisfaction which the Sarkar`s company does. Salim says that he does not find the degree of comfort in medicines which he finds in the Sarkar`s company. When asked if Sarkar has asked him not to use medicines Salim said that he (Sarkar) would never ask him what to do and what not to do. It bothers Salim`s family a lot when he does not eat medicines. But to Salim, medicines are meant to provide comfort which he finds in the Shah Jee`s company rather than the medicines. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-autospace: none;"><b><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Social pressure <o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Adil is not so keen about being more religious. He does not want to be in mosque all the times, neither does he want to recite or wear any kind of amulets. For all of his life he has never been enthusiastic about religion. But despite all of what have been said, his orientation towards religion has been increased since his illness. He has been going to mosque more frequently now and tries to stay in mosque as long as he can. Now he recites the Quran, which he said he had read for the first time since completing his Quranic education from a local <i>mauli, </i>Islamic religious scholar. But he does all of this because his parents and neighbors expect it from him. He adheres to religious matters to escape people`s criticism because, due to his serious illness, the surrounding people expect him to be more religious, offering prayers and reciting the Quran. By adhering to religion, Adil also escapes the unwanted comments of people about his character, <i>nemaze shemaze parhne se ye hota hai ke log ye nahi samajhte k mujhe AIDS es leye huwa hai ke mein parhezgar nahi hun</i>, because of offering prayers people don`t think of my being inflicted with AIDS as due to my impiety (unreligious). However, whatever may be the reason behind his being more religious now, Adil thinks that religion does provide him some kind satisfaction and by following religion he feels more like a member of his community. But still, the level of satisfaction that he gets from being religious is not of significant amount. That is why he says that if he were living somewhere else where people would not expect him to be religious he would have not cared about it (religion) as much as he does now.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #231f20;"><br /></span></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><span style="color: #231f20;">Re-visiting the role of religion</span></b><span style="color: #231f20;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">After being diagnosed with their diseases, the orientation of all the informants towards religion has been increased. But despite the fact that all of the three informants have the same socio-economic and religious background their attitude towards religion is profoundly different from one another. Each one of the informants puts to fore a different religious aspect. One (Munir) emphasizes on the personal relation to religion. He does not need religious scholars to interpret to him what has been written in the Quran. To Munir every person should learn by him/herself. He adheres to such religious practices which are of individual nature, such as reciting the Quran and memorizing different Quranic verses for the sake of reciting them at different specific times. He translates the Quran by himself and always checks the relevance of different Quranic verses to his illness. The other (Salim) emphasizes on embodiment of the Quranic text without any concern for its meaning. Also, Salim seems to be giving more importance to religious authorities. He sees Sarkar as a guiding persona for him. Unlike Munir, Salim is more likely to follow on what other people suggest to him. He believes that his own knowledge about Islam is not enough to decide on his own about following different religious matters. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> The case of Adil provides a very different attitude towards religion. Despite the fact that he follows religion to escape people`s criticism; it, however, would be difficult to say that his terminal-illness has not any effect on his relation with religion (McGrath 2003). Neither can we say that Adil has developed negative attitude towards religion after being diagnosed with AIDS (Lavery et al 2009). However, it is important to point out that in the case of Adil religion provides him with a sense of being member of his community. By adhering to religion, Adil makes sure that he has been seen as a “good” member of the society. Still, when asked if he would have followed religion in the same way if he were not inflicted with AIDA, Adil answer was in negative. This provides us with a clue that his terminal-illness and religiosity has a positive link. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #231f20;">All of the three informants related religiosity with hope, overall satisfaction, and psychological well-being (Heo 2009 and Jones 2004). The fact that people terminal illness are faced with the fear of looming death leads one to think that the positive relation between religiosity and terminal illness is due that fear (</span>Hoelter<b><span style="color: red;"> </span></b>et al 1979<span style="color: #231f20;">). From our findings, however, we can conclude that none of the informants seems to explicitly link religiosity with the fear of death. Munir, says <i>mujhe maut se darr nahi hai</i>, I don`t fear death. Similarly, Salim considers his illness a message from God. To Salim, God has inflicted him with illness because He wants him (Salim) to know the real purpose of his life. And to him the real purpose of life is to worship God and make Him happy. However, choosing certain verses of the Quran by Munir with their meanings concerning life, death, and illness, it can be stated that fear of death does play an important motivational force for being more religious. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> In conclusion, the meaning and understanding of religion varies from individual to individual. Every person tends to emphasize that aspect of religion which s/he thinks would be of certain importance to her/him. Religion provides people with a tool to make sense of their own lives. However, it would be an exaggeration to term religion as an important aspect of terminally-ill people lives. Terminally-ill people`s attitude towards religion varies just like the “healthy” people`s attitude towards religion. It would not be right to say that terminally-ill people have the same kind of motivation, that is, their illness and fear of death, behind their being more religious. Like other people, terminally-ill people might have been following religion for a lot of different reasons, which may include their personal motivation (like in the case of Munir and Salim) or a social pressure (like Adil in this case). </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: justify; text-autospace: none;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><u><span style="color: red;">Written By: Waleed Khan (LUMS)</span></u></b><span style="color: #231f20;"> </span></span><span style="color: #231f20;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-67245706355427121452012-06-10T13:00:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00Blasphemy Law of Pakistan<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Blasphemy means irreverence towards God, religious people, religious books and other religious things. Most of the religions have also some punishments for blasphemy. These punishments are assigned in blasphemy laws. Different religions have different blasphemy laws. <a href="" name="RulingforBlasphemyinIslam">In the Old Testament of the Holy Bible, which is the authority for both the Jews and the Christians</a>, it is stated as “And he that blasphemeth the name of the Lord, he shall surely be put to death, and all the congregation shall certainly stone him: (Book of Leviticus 24:16).<span style="color: red;"> </span>Similarly in Manusmriti, the Law book of Hindus, it is stated “If a man born of a lower class intentionally bothers a priest, the king should punish him physically with various forms of corporal and capital punishment that make men shudder.” (Manusmriti 9:248).<span style="color: red;"> </span>In Islam, the law is stated in the Holy Quran as ““The punishment of those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger, and strive with might for mischief through the land is: execution, or crucifixion, or the cutting off of hands and feet from opposite sides, or exile from the land: that is their disgrace in this world, and a heavy punishment is theirs in the Hereafter;” (Surah Al-Maidah 5:33).<span style="color: red;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Despite of these religious laws for blasphemy, different muslim countries have different blasphemy laws. Some countries have made amendments in the blasphemy laws. Among these countries, one is Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Although Pakistan is a muslim majority state, the blasphemy law of Pakistan is different from other Islamic countries. Pakistan has blasphemy laws in constitution comprises on the articles 295-B, 295-C, 298-A, 298-B and 298-C. In article 295-B, it is mentioned “</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Whoever willfully defiles, damages or desecrates a copy of the Holy Quran or of an extract there from or uses it in any derogatory manner or for any unlawful purpose shall be punishable with imprisonment for life”. Article 295-C states that “ Whoever by words, either spoken or written, or by visible representation, or by any imputation, innuendo, or insinuation, directly or indirectly defiles the sacred name of the Holy Prophet Mohammad (peace be upon him) shall be punished with death, or imprisonment of life and shall also be liable to fine.” . Article 298-A states that anyone who passes any offensive remarks about companions of Holy Prophet (PBUH), about wives or member of family of Holy Prophet (PBUH) should be punished with three years punishment, or should be fined or imposed both. The other two articles 298-B and 298-C are some specific groups like Ahmadis and Qadyanies. (Pakistan Penal Code)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></div><a name='more'></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> In 1927, the British Government said that any deliberate and malicious act intended to infuriate religious feelings of any religious group by insulting its religious belief will be mentioned as crime act. The maximum punishment for breaking this law was 3 year imprisonment. In 1984, Ahmadies, a minority sect were banned from calling themselves muslims. In 1986, death penalty was introduced for those who pass any derogatory remarks against Muhammad (PBUH) and this amendment made Blasphemy Law of Pakistan the harshest in the world. In 1992, resolution was passed in parliament for the death penalty in blasphemy law. (</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">PKPolitics Discuss Forum)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Pakistan is an Islamic state and it represents Islam. Islam is the religion of peace. As Allah Almighty says in the Holy Quran <i>“</i></span><strong><span style="font-size: 12.0pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><i>You who believe! Enter peace (Islam) totally. Do not follow in the footsteps of satan. He is an outright enemy to you.”</i> (Surat al-Baqara). The blasphemy laws of Pakistan consist of six sections but the main concern are the two sections, 295-B and 295-C, because these are the laws with the strictest punishments of death and life imprisonment. </span></strong><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Actually the blasphemy laws were made to protect Islam from any type of desecration and for the betterment of Pakistan, but it has been largely misused since 1986. Many people including important politicians and religious people have talked about the matter as the blasphemy laws should be revised or not. Although many people argue that any amendment in blasphemy laws will encourage unislamic practices in the country, these laws should be revised as they are poorly defined and thus it has become the weapon of hatred used by muslims against other muslims and minorities to intimidate and harass. The purpose of the amendment is not to abolish the law which is basically the perception of the religious people but to make the law in such a way that the frequent abuse of law should be avoided and to find a way forward for our society so that the persecution of the minorities and the innocent Muslims in the name of this law should be stopped. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Many critics say that amendments in blasphemy laws of Pakistan will not be tolerated. It is because they say that this encourage unislamic practices in the country. But the question arises have these unislamic practices decreased after the implementation of these new laws? The answer will be negative. It is because if we go through the statistical data of cases reported of blasphemy before the introduction of death penalty and life imprisonment, there is a great increase in the number of cases reported. Before 1986, when there was blasphemy law in Pakistan which was made by British Government, there were only 13 cases of blasphemy reported in the Pakistani courts. But after 1986, the year of introduction of death penalty in blasphemy laws, this number have reached 647.( Express Tribune) Why this number has increased in such a large proportion? Despite that people should be frighten of these tough laws and should be careful about these things, the number of blasphemy cases have increased. So the critics’ argument is not valid. Firstly it is that these laws are used in our country sentimentally not judicially. People when just only hear that somebody has passed derogatory remarks about our Holy Prophet (PBUH) or about Quran Majeed, they do not think anything about whether one has really said or done malicious things about Muhammad (PBUH) or Holy Quran and they just take harsh steps against those individuals. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> The people do love Muhammad (PBUH) and the Holy Quran, and thus mad in love every one want to become Ghazi Illmudin Shaheed, and in the struggle of becoming Ghazi Illmudin, both innocents and criminals are pissed off. Ghazi Illmudin was a Pakistani muslim who killed Indian writer Raj Pal in 1929 for publishing a book “ Rangeela Rasool” which contained derogatory remarks about Muhammad (PBUH). When Ghazi killed him, he was declared hero by muslims and even by personalities like Quaid-e-Azam and Allama Iqbal.( Siasat.com) People go in sentiments and do not go for logical. Recently, Punjab governor Salman Taseer was killed by his own guard Mamtaz Qadri on Jan 4, 2011. He only talked about that the law need amendments because it is largely misused. Although, he himself did not pass any type of offensive remarks about Muhammad (SAW), he was killed because he said that the blasphemy laws are misused and should altered. Now this approach is wrong. He was right and the law is misused in the country. But that does not mean that Islam is so harsh that the one who only talk about the law should also be killed. And the interesting part is that millions of people represented Mamtaz Qadri as a hero. On Jan 4 2012, people were ready to give Rs 100 million for his gun and named it as “Hole Gun”. People threw flowers on him and lawyers were fighting with each other to fight his case without taking a penny from him.(Express Tribune) In the same way, minister for minorities Shahbaz Bhatti, a non-muslim minister was also killed in 2011. He also spoke for the same thing about blasphemy law. After the execution of Shahbaz Bhatti, the minorities really felt themselves unsafe in Pakistan.(Express Tribune)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Mainly the problem is not with blasphemy laws; the problem is with its judgment. How should it be investigated whether someone has really broken these blasphemy laws? This is the place which needs a lot of attention. Because without proper investigation; both innocents and criminals are pissed out. Sometimes criminals are not punished even he would have broke the law and sometimes innocents are punished who do not even know about blasphemy.<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Country is already on a fragile turn and this violence would really push it over the edge if this is not controlled. The blasphemy laws needs to be reconsidered. The punishments that are given should be properly investigated and made with proof. Vague terms in the laws have caused these laws to be used for purposes other than their intended use. The long sentences in the laws give the leeway so that these laws can be used for other uses. The long sentence’s meanings can be changed to suite one’s purposes. These laws should be revised in the way so that the concept for justice is made clear. For example, these words have been used by people for their own purposes and to convict people in their innocence, to take revenge and for other purposes. The material evidence in these cases was not enough but the cases were won by the use of these sentences. This is against the clause that one is innocent until proven guilty.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> The claims of the Pakistani officials which state that none of the prisoners or other people has died under these laws are also wrong. They fail to take in account the scores of people who are accused unfairly under these laws and then executed unofficially. Also, the killing of minorities who are accused is not also recorded by these officials. The wordings of these laws have been used to carry out injustices and have been used for purposes other than their original purpose. The real time when these laws would be considered is when a famous personality and specially those who are against the revision of these laws are accused under this law and then the wording of these laws would be brought under the attention of the parliament. It is not far away these wordings start being used in sectarian violence, when a shia would yell “blasphemy” against a sunni and a deobandi would use it against a berelvi. So this law actually becomes the source sectarianism as well. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Since 1986, Pakistan authorities have charged 647 people under offenses of blasphemy law. There are thousands of cases who have not been registered which were not reported in the court but are rather deal by police or by local people. The court or anyone cannot even ask about that why the law is taken by police or by other civilians in their own hands. If someone asks that it is the simplest reply that Islam also allows that anyone who breaks blasphemy law should be executed. While the law under Islam is that if someone is caught under offenses of blasphemy law should be tackled by the government or state. (Justice, Huminity, Self Esteem)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> The second problem is that the criminal intent is not taken in account. The judge or others jury members do not find out why some individual has passed derogatory remarks about Holy Prophet (PBUH) or defiled The Holy Quran? Due to this reason as well the law is misused. Recently, Asia Noreen, a Pakistani Christian woman was accused for passing offensive remarks about Hazrat Mohammad (PBUH) on June 2009. She was brought to the court of Sheikhupura. Later on judge Muhammad Naveed Iqbal sentenced her to death by hanging and charged her fine of $1100 additionally. This news spread in the whole world like fire in the jungle, and this was because if she would have died, she would have become the first women in Pakistan to be killed lawfully for blasphemy. The case was later on sent to Lahore high court. (DAWN)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Asia has spent one and half years in the jail and still the case is not finalized. When the investigation went forward, this result came in front that she did abusive language against Holy Prophet (PBUH) but after accidents. The story was that Asia worked at a farm hand with other muslim women. She then went to drink water from the pot belonging to muslim women. When she touched that, the other women started to abuse her and that you are “napak” means unclean, and why have you touched our equipment? They started to abuse her and later on the mater went on to such offensive level that she said offensive things about Holy Prophet (SAW). “Did she blaspheme Muhammad (SAW)?” If this was the mater, one cannot punish her because the criminal intent is not to heart the feeling of the muslims or to defame Holy Prophet (SAW), but this offense is done in sentimental way. It looks like that it was just a sentimental debate about each others religion and such debates are actually common. Whatever the situation was, the law is executed in an improper and an unjust way over the powerless people of the society and also hinders the freedom of speech in the society which is the basic right of an individual.<span style="color: red;"> <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Under this scenario a large agreement was there that there are some problems with the applicability of the law. Therefore the law needs some amendments so that it can bring culprits under the prosecution and also to keep the balance of tolerance and freedom in the society intact.For this purpose on 30<sup>th</sup> November 2010 Jinnah institute arranged a seminar where the members of civil society, religious scholars, lawyers, NGO representatives and the Minister for Minorities, Shahbaz Bhatti, gathered to discuss the amendments to the Blasphemy Laws in light of the recent case of Aasia Bibi and the blatant abuse of the legislation to persecute minorities. The whole purpose was to make the law in such a way that it should provide justice and protection to the people but not the persecution of the minorities. In this seminar a bill was submitted by Sherry Rehman, former federal minister, and President Jinnah Institute. The Bill seeks to amend the Blasphemy Laws, sections 295A-C and 298-A of the Pakistan Penal Code (PPC) and the Code of Criminal Procedure (CCrP) as amended under General Zia. It is intended, that the Bill will ensure that all citizens of Pakistan have an equal right to constitutional protection and that miscarriages of justice in the name of Blasphemy are avoided at all costs. (Jinnah Institute)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Sherry Rehman, president of Jinnah Institute, stated in the conference regarding blasphemy laws:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0.0001pt 0.5in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">“The law currently stands the definition of the term blasphemy is vague, yet it carries a mandatory death sentence under section 295C. The Amendment to the Blasphemy Laws Act 2010 will not only rationalize the punishments prescribed for offences relating to religion provided under section 295-C and 298-A of the Pakistan Penal Code but ensure that the concept of criminal intent is taken into account when charging an individual with this offence. Other amendments include new sections (198E and 203A) to ensure that charges brought frivolously under the Blasphemy Laws will be punished. Similarly, advocating religious hatred will be penalized. Cases brought under these sections will be heard in the High Court to ensure more public scrutiny” (Let Us Build Pakistan)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Ali Dayan Hasan (Human Rights Watch and Board of Advisors Jinnah Institute) compared the ongoing persecution of minorities under the Blasphemy Laws to apartheid in South Africa. Dr Anis Haroon (Chair NCSW) also spoke in detail about this mater. Anis Haroon said that “We live in such an intolerant culture where mosques take over the role of the judiciary…any laws which take away the rights of any culture should be repealed.” (Let Us Build Pakistan) <strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Asia’s case is an evident example of how innocent and powerless people can be unjustly charged and sentenced to death under the unfair execution of these laws.</span></strong> The important thing to note in this seminar was that all parts of the society were represented in it. In it civil society representatives, NGO’s representatives, minorities’ representatives, lawmakers and most importantly religious scholars were also present and they all agreed about the vagueness of the law and they also agreed that this law need to be amended. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> The amendments in the judgment of the blasphemy laws should be done. All cases of blasphemy law under section 295-B and 295-C should be brought to high courts rather then Session Courts because in Session Courts the lawyers and jury members may have pressure from mobs. In High Courts, there will be no such cases and further more cases will be judged more thoroughly. Moreover High Courts are always under a higher degree of scrutiny.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: 0.0001pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> It is the need of the day that Pakistan needs a new way to judge these laws to put off religious motivated discrimination. The new way of judgment of laws will be very different from that of present ones and will help in defending religious minorities equally with Muslims. Pakistan is amongst those countries which prohibit brutal and demeaning and unjustified punishments. Now it is the time we should honor the commitments of the Pakistan and stand up to stop radical purveyors’ f hate. As Pakistan is made In the name of Islam so we should respect and follow the laws of Islam but in the proper way. By proper use of laws we can tell to the world that Islam is the religion of peace and should show the real face of Islam to the World. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Works Cited<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "Blasphemy laws in Pakistan ." <i>Offenses relating to religion: Pakistan Penal code </i>. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://rationalistinternational.net/Shaikh/blasphemy_laws_in_pakistan.htm">http://rationalistinternational.net/Shaikh/blasphemy_laws_in_pakistan.htm</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "Blasphemy Law in Quran and Sunnah and Ijma." <i>Justice, Huminity, Self Esteem</i>. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://www.insaf.pk/Forum/tabid/53/forumid/1/tpage/1/view/topic/postid/98014/Default.aspx">http://www.insaf.pk/Forum/tabid/53/forumid/1/tpage/1/view/topic/postid/98014/Default.aspx</a><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "History of Blasphemy Law in Pakistan." <i>Discuss PKPolitics Discuss Forum</i>. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://pkpolitics.com/discuss/topic/history-of-blasphemy-law-in-pakistan">http://pkpolitics.com/discuss/topic/history-of-blasphemy-law-in-pakistan</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"Jailed Christian mother Asia Bibi." <i>DAWN</i>. N.p., 4 Jan 2012. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <<a href="http://www.blogger.com/goog_418948250">http://www.dawn.com/2012/01/04/jailed-christian-mother-asia-bibi-well- <o:p></o:p></a></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://husband.html/">husband.html</a>>.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "Salmaan Taseer assassinated." <i>The Express Tribune</i>. 4 Jan 2011, n.d. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://tribune.com.pk/story/98988/salman-taseer-attacked-in-islamabad">http://tribune.com.pk/story/98988/salman-taseer-attacked-in-islamabad</a>/>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "Shahbaz Bhatti assassinated." <i>The Express Tribune</i>. N.p., Mar 2 2011. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://tribune.com.pk/story/126287/shahbaz-bhatti-attacked-in-islamabad">http://tribune.com.pk/story/126287/shahbaz-bhatti-attacked-in-islamabad</a>/>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "Sherry Rehman submits bill in National Assembly for amendment to blasphemy laws." <i>Let Us Build Pakistan</i>. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://criticalppp.com/archives/31087">http://criticalppp.com/archives/31087</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> "The current Blasphemy Law is mis-used for injustice." <i>Jinnah Institute</i>. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <<a href="http://jinnah-institute.org/events/196-the-current-blasphemy-law-is-mis-used-for-injustice">http://jinnah-institute.org/events/196-the-current-blasphemy-law-is-mis-used-for-injustice</a>->. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">"The history of the blasphemy law." <i>The Express Tribune</i>. N.p., 5 jan2011. Web. 6 Jan 2012. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> <<a href="http://tribune.com.pk/story/99414/the-history-of-the-blasphemy-law">http://tribune.com.pk/story/99414/the-history-of-the-blasphemy-law</a>/>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Qur’an. Translation. Muhammad Marmaduke Pickhall. New York: Tahrike Tarsile Qur’an, <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> 2006.Print.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">. "The Story of Ghazi Ilm Din Shaheed ." <i>Siasat</i>. 3 jan 2011, n.d. Web. <<a href="http://www.siasat.pk/forum/showthread.php?53028-The-Story-of-Ghazi-Ilm-Din-Shaheed">http://www.siasat.pk/forum/showthread.php?53028-The-Story-of-Ghazi-Ilm-Din-Shaheed</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><br /></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-86038786670456722252012-06-10T12:47:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00American and French Revolutions- Comparison<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify; text-justify: inter-ideograph;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">The study of human history reveals that man is greatly influenced by revolutions. Although the revolutions witnessed in the past had some effects on nations but there are some that changed the philosophies of this world completely. Among these the widely discussed are American and French revolutions. Although both the revolutions occurred in the same century and both rose against the established monarchies of that particular time, yet there were differences regarding their ideologies, type of regimes and their ultimate aftermaths.</span><span style="color: windowtext;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> Both American and French revolution occurred in the same century. The American revolution started in 1763 and ended in 1775. In American revolution, French people helped the Americans both economically and militarily. When the French returned from America after the American revolution, they felt same situation of injustice and unfairness among the people as it was in America, which became the most prominent reason for the occurrence of French revolution. French revolution started in 1789 and ended in 1799. There was the difference of only fourteen years between the ending of American revolution and the beginning of French revolution. Actually the occurrence of French revolution was primarily influenced by the American revolution.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> The rebellious nature of human beings is natural and obvious when they are oppressed and subjected to brutality. The American and French revolutions were the result of the said nature of human beings. French revolution occurred because the local aristocrats and monarchs were very biased with the lower class. The lower class was not getting its rights. Similarly, in American revolution, the citizens were fed up of their ruling monarchs because of the biased attitude of monarchs towards them.</span></span></div><a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><o:p></o:p></span><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> On the contrary, both these revolutions were based on different ideologies. The French Revolution occurred because the people of France were tired of their miserable life which was due to the variation of rights by monarchs with them. The poor people of France were demanding the following three words agenda “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity”, and later on these three words became the slogan of the revolutionists of France. Although the slogan of people of France comprised of three words “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity” yet they mainly focused in the term “Equality”(French Revolution, an over view). As there lived three different classes of people i-e monarchs, aristocrats (middle class) and common people, this was their slogan that every class should enjoy same rights and enlightenments and should share all types of burdens. Montesquieu, the most important political philosopher of the French Revolution, in his masterpiece “L'Esprit des lois” first published in 1753 claimed that a liberal constitutional monarchy was the best system of government for a people who prized freedom, on the grounds that by dividing the sovereignty of the nation between several centres of power, it provided a permanent check on any one of them becoming despotic (Cranston).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;">Similarly Locus stated:<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><span style="color: windowtext;">In the eighteenth century, the French bourgeoisie had become aware of the increasing disparity between its wealth and social usefulness, on the one hand, and its social prestige and opportunities on the other. It way was blocked and recognition of its worth was denied by a decaying class of parasitic, hereditary privileged, noble landowners. Its vitality was further jeopardized by a monarchy not only committed to antiquated aristocratic values, but also incapable of giving the country that firm yet benignly restrained direction under which the initiative of men of business might flourish(“A Comparison of the French Revolution and</span> <span style="color: windowtext;">American”).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> Unlike French revolution, American revolution was most likely as the war of independence. The Americans wanted to get rid of the operation of British Colonial System. Unlike French revolution as it was within the country against their rulers, American revolution was against those rulers which were not inhabitant and were governing them from miles away from America. They wanted to make their own rules and regulations to live their own lives. They wanted their own government and policies to run their country. Thus there was the difference between the ideologies between people of France and people of America, because of France were fighting for their rights while the Americans were fighting for independence.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> Both these revolutions also differed from each other in the regime type. In French revolution, there was monarch system which was governing the country. The king held the absolute power, and he was controlling the whole system. No local person was the part of the government. On the other hand, American revolution started because of the unrest that was found among the masses due to the British colonization. The British Colonial System was controlling the whole America. There was almost no share of the local inhabitants in the government. The British Colonial System was a foreign system, so they were treating the Americans very harshly. In this system, the whole government was controlled by British governor, who was elected by the Queen of England and in turn he was bound to follow the orders of Queen. The unjust behavior of the British governor with the American masses caused the American revolution against the British rule.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> Although both American and French revolution occurred on the basis of their own distinctive ideologies, yet only American revolution achieved its respective goals. After the American revolution, the Americans fought war of independence. The Americans were now self-determining. American revolution gave birth to the democracy. They made their own laws and rules to govern their country. They made their own constitution and made their own government. Unlike the consequences of American revolution, the outcomes of French revolution were quite different. Although the French were able to abolish the system of feudalism yet they were still unable to get rid of the monarchy system. After the French revolution, France was again governed by the aristocrats and then by a dictator. So the people of France were unable to achieve their ultimate goal of liberty from monarchy system.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> </span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"> The American and French revolution had a huge impact on the pages of history. These are the revolutions without which our society would never have achieved the milestones which we have achieved today. A thorough and systematic study shows that American and French revolutions have some aspects in common like they occurred in the time spam of fifty years and raised against the monarchies system but they differed in ideologies, types of regimes and their aftermaths. </span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 0.0001pt;"><span style="color: red; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif;"><b><u>Written By: Haris Khan</u></b></span></div><br /></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-37854198113065973362012-06-10T12:39:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00Case Against Religion: A Critique of “Religion Poisins Everything”<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Christopher Hitchens is an Anglo American author. He is famous for his atheist views and has written on topics ranging from politics to religion. Due to his atheist views, the author remains a controversial figure among many scholars. “Religion Poisons Everything.” is an extract from the book “God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything”. This book was published on April 25<sup>th</sup> 2007 and later on was published in the weekly magazine “Slate”. This specific article targets the academic society and is against the religious dogma surrounding the present society. The author informs the audience about the drawbacks of religion, the chaos it causes in the society, its detrimental effects and how it plagues our society, and how it is a man-made concept.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Christopher Hitchens starts his article by criticizing religions and discussing four main flaws of religious faith. In the article, the writer has discussed how religion has badly affected the personal and social lives of people. He insists that science must be the base of all ethical values and he openly argues that religions make us conservative and compel us to perform such actions which readers would otherwise regret. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Although the writer employs proper use of language and ethos to impress the audience, the writer jumps to hasty generalizations and uses illogical reasons to establish hi arguments. The offensive tone of the article leaves the believers offended and may produce doubt within the reader’s mind about the credibility of the author.</span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> The author employs ethos and logos to build on his argument. Referring to the historical practice of the Aztecs to sacrifice a human being so that the “Sun would rise”. The author, through this, tries to strengthen his point that religion is the cause of violence and in essence, it causes discord as well as anarchy. Similarly, referring to the atheist, the author tries to use statistical figures to imply that if a survey was conducted with authenticity, incidences of “greed and violence” amongst the believers would far exceed the number of instances among disbelievers, who does not even believe in the concept of the “after life”. The author mocks the paradox of the believers, who call themselves as the “virtues” and the “all-knowing”. The author gives support of his argument when he implies that it is the view of science that he prefers over all other concepts and not the ideas or concepts that the believers of religion have, which are in discord with each other. The author tries to humor the fact that when new discoveries in science come to surface, the religious believers try to link them with their religion and tries to explain these new concepts with the help of their “contortions” and to “fit” the new insight of science through their religion. The author also tries to logic by referring to the believer’s incapability to leave the atheists alone. The author explains that the atheists are logical, living their lives with their own concepts and not infringing upon the lives of others, while believers find it very hard to accept this simple concept. He supports his argument by referring to believers planning the “destruction” of the author and his co-workers. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> The author employs several modes of development such as narrations, examples and descriptions. The author tries to imply a personal touch in the essay to further support his purpose. Referring to the absurdity of religion, the author explains that not even before his “boyish voice” had broken, he was convinced that religion was the fabrication of man and that it did not contribute to the society on any level, let it be social or moral. Also, the author talks about his experience of meeting several people that believed in the fabrication of religion. These people belonged to different backgrounds and had different believes to begin with. The author explains that religion poisons everything not according to him only, but to the beliefs of hundreds of people, ranging from common men , to literary scholars. Furthermore, the author describes and refers to the “bar mitzvahs” (the ceremonial celebration Jews have, when a boy turns 13) (Peter) and “Gothic Cathedrals” of the Christians. With these descriptions , the author further augments his point that he is willing to go to these ceremonies and places of the believers, that he is ready to continue his relations and daily life activities with these believers, lest they leave his beliefs and his life alone and free from their influence. The author uses exemplification when he talks about Professor Stephen and Professor Richard and their arguments about the evolution of life. The author explains that although these literary scholars have disagreements with each other, these disagreements are based on “real science” and not the fabrication of man. Each of the scientists gives support to their arguments through science which has solid proofs behind it. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> The article is constructed through effective use of language, tone and style. The author implies heavy use of metaphors and sarcasm. Referring to the believers, the author tries to explain how the beliefs of these religious people fail to make any sense when they grovel before deities and pretend that they are “part of a divine plan”. The author further mocks their beliefs that they need to feel unworthiness and servility so that they then think of themselves as a part of something bigger, perhaps a divine plan. Referring to atheist as “infidels” , the author ridicules the behavior of the believers who believe that they are the only people in the world who know about the morals and ethics of life and that the “infidels” , who do not believe in religion , are somewhat of a lesser class of people in the society. Through the use of this word, the author also questions the strong impressions of the believers about the atheists. The author adds to the arguments in his essay through the use of demeaning and strong words. Referring to the atrocities committed by the believers in the name of religion, the author implies that even “brothel keepers and ethnical cleansers” would think twice about committing these atrocities. The author conveys that those who commit these atrocities are in a way even worse than the individuals who believe in deity greater than man. The author employs repetition in the essay to further strengthen his argument. The use of “We” is extensive in the essay. Through this word, the author links all the people who share his school of thought and implies that he is not alone in believing in the concept that religion poisons everything.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Author talks about the distortion of ethical values by religious believe. He says that believers are less ethical than non believers. This happens due to the belief of the believers that the deity they follow is “all-knowing” and that their chosen path is the true path to follow. However, ethical values in every region of the world are different due to different social and moral backgrounds. Therefore, an action can be considered ethical by someone and unethical by another. For example, sex before marriage is considered not as abhorrent in the western society as it is in the eastern societies. Therefore, to have common ethical values, religion is necessary for the establishment of these values. Furthermore, the writer once again enforces his own school of thought on the readers by using the term “We” in place of “I”. This gives the readers the idea that the article is an opinion of many atheists and not the author alone. He cannot use “We” because not all atheists may agree with his ideas and thanking. As the arguments in the article are the writer’s personal views and not necessarily of others, he should not use the term “We”. The writer also tries to convince his audience by giving references to different scientific theories and different scientists and philosophers. He uses names of great writers like William Shakespeare, Schiller, and Tolstoy. The writer says that compared to moral values presented in Holy Scriptures, the logics of these people in their masterpiece works are more convincing and effectual. This may be true as far as the beliefs of the author are concerned, but deep analysis shows that the work of these personalities was more fictitious than real and by no means can be related to any ethical values. Real life cannot be ruled with fictitious school of thought. The audience is influenced by the writer’s point of view due to combination of many literary techniques. He uses logical reasoning to support his assertions very effectively. He uses ethos and pathos to prove his points and support his claims. He explains the inhumane nature of religious beliefs by emotional support which explains the reliability of his assertions. He gives many examples and provides many names of personalities to increase his credibility. The mixture of narration, examples, rhetorical analysis, description and assumptions makes the article very appealing, interesting and fascinating. On the other hand the tone of this article is very informal and degrading. The writer uses terms like “foolish people”, “brothel-keepers” and “ethnic cleanser” while explaining the religious class. He also uses many words and phrases which are disdainful and sarcastic. Also, he mocks the religious practices of many religions and explains that atheists do not need to follow them. In response to Hitchens article, the scholar Mark D Roberts says that<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">“I want to take the point of Hitchens that I am deeply concerned on present conditions of world and the extent to which the ridicule and its cousins are hurting us. Even if Hitchens is right that God is not great and religion poisons everything, I would say that this tendency to be little people will not make the world a better place to live. And if those who follow him do the same, it will make matters worse”. (Christopher)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> The audience is usually offended by this tone of the writer because in this world there are millions of people who follow certain type of religious belief while atheists, who do not follow any type of religious belief, are comparatively low. The writer somehow achieves his purpose in making his audience realize the severity of this topic by his harsh and demeaning tone. Moreover, the tone of this article also decreases the article’s appeal. The writer conveys his message which is hate for religious beliefs by giving many examples. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> The author expresses his point of view in a very biased manner. He organizes the essay with many fallacies and jumps to conclusions with vague arguments. He also switches between different topic without proper use of transitions. The essay could have been improved and the audience could have been more convinced if the author had given the counter argument and then refuted it. This would have further strengthened the audience assertion that the author is not biased and that he has researched both sides of the coin. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><b><u><span style="color: red;">Written By: Haris Khan</span></u></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-90726772310635303252012-06-10T12:18:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:16:45.379-07:00A critique on the theories of Edward Tylor and James Frazer<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Since the era of Renaissance and the dawn of modern science, religion as cognitive, intellectual, doctrinal and dogmatic phenomenon gained prominence and many intellectualists have engaged in the debate that whether science, that accumulates knowledge based on empirical evidence and observation, or religion and magic, that holds strong belief in the supernatural powers or powers that control human destiny, is the superior source of knowledge. The science versus religion debate reached at its peak during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century when anthropology and sociology emerged as new disciplines which provided an alternative views on this debate. Moreover, many anthropologists have concerned themselves with the demarcation between science, religion and magic. For example Bronislaw Malinowski and Emile Durkheim explained religion and magic from a functionalist perspective and explicated that they both play an important role in a society; Evans Pritchard, a structural- functionalist, based on his field work in South Sudan among the Nuer people came up with his theories on religion and witchcraft; similarly Levi Strauss, Mary Douglas are among other anthropologists who engaged themselves on this subject matter. But in this paper I will thoroughly examine and critically analyze the workings of Edward Tylor and James Frazer, two Victorian anthropologists, in the light of science versus religion debate. To fully understand and grasp the relationship between the two phenomena, magic will be discussed in contrast to science and religion. The paper will look at the three evolutionary stages of human beings divided up by James Frazer that roughly correspond to the ages of magic, religion and science. The hypothesis and theories of other theorists will be brought under discussion in contrast to the theories of Tylor and Frazer. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Edward Tylor and James Frazer were two eminent Victorian, evolutionist and armchair anthropologists. Their main contribution to the field of anthropology was that they demarcated the boundaries between religion, science and magic and believed that there were three basic ways of looking at the world: that of science, that of magic and that of religion. Tylor regarded science as a dominant source of knowledge and deemed religion and magic as inferior to science. He defined religion as belief in the ‘spiritual beings’ (Tambiah, 1990). He held that the essence of primitive religion and the true natural religion was animism, a belief that every object including non human entities in this world has a soul (Strenski 2006). Animism is the foundation of all religions. Tylor held that this belief has been originated from the rational but consistent interpretations of dreams, visions, hallucinations, cataleptic states and similar phenomena which human observe and experience. As an intellectualist, he viewed that the institution of religion has been developed from the very rational thoughts and observations of the individuals when they attempted to interpret their dreams. Edward Tylor also developed the theory of ‘survival’. He asserted that when a society evolves, certain customs, processes, opinions, and rituals are retained that are unnecessary in the new society (ibid). He posited that religion is a survival, the fact that the modern religions still believe in the spiritual beings so they have been evolved from the early form of religion that is animism. </span><br /><a name='more'></a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Based on the works of Edward Tylor, James Frazer made an effort to arrange the categories of science, religion and magic in developmental schemes. Frazer argued that the inception of magic precedes religion in the history of human kind and that science will inevitably dissolve its two predecessors in our time. He said that an age of magic started when the primitive people, having less knowledge of science and technologically backward, desired to control the nature by using magical spells and rites. But then the more intelligent people realized the falsity of some of the theories of magic and that most of the times their magical spells and rites did not work. They came to know there is something else, the superior beings, that is controlling the nature of universe and they need to get the attention and help of these superior beings to get their businesses functioning. The age of religion began at this time. Frazer defined religion as “propitiation and conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and human life” (Tambiah 1990). The move from magic to religion involved an assumption that nature is to some extent elastic or variable, subject to deflection by a mightier power. Frazer argued that when the advancements in technology were made and with the age of Enlightenment that advocated the use of reason and individualism instead of tradition and established doctrine, the scientific knowledge became dominant and prevailed magic and religion. Science provides answers to all the events that the primitive people thought were supernatural. Thus human beings have been evolved from the age of magic to religion and at the end moved to the third stage that is the age of science, which rejects both the previous modes of thoughts. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Both Edward Tylor and James Frazer have discussed the phenomenon of magic in detail. Tylor asserted that magic was based on a general human propensity, namely the principle of “association of ideas” (Tambiah 1990). According to him, the procedures of magic were purely rational and the way magicians carried out their activities resemble to that of scientists. They knew that certain effects will be produced if particular magical spells and rites are performed. The only error, he said, the magicians made was that he or she postulated a causal connection between the things classified by resemblance and contiguity and thus he referred to magic as a ‘harmful delusion’. For example, the primitive people thought that the sun will only rise if a cock is crowed before the sun rise. So they would do magical spells and rites to make the cock crow. Through false and mistaken association, the primitive people tried to control the nature. Later, Frazer took forward Tylor’s views on the relation between magic and science and maintained that the fundamental conception of magic is identical with modern science, namely the ‘uniformity of nature’. As in nature, every event is proceeded by another in a veracious and accurate manner which shows that the nature is always uniform whatsoever happens. Similarly, the magicians believe that the same cause will always provide the same results and as long as he performs the ceremony in accordance with the rules laid down, the desired results will inevitably follow. Due to these explanations, Frazer and Tylor fused science and magic in one sphere which is profane in contrast to religion which was placed in sacred sphere. They asserted that magic is a phenomenon that is always aimed at specifics that is rainfall for crops, betterment of health; carried out by individuals and it compels the Gods or any supernatural agents to get things done. While religion is a communal phenomenon carried out a collective group of body and beseeches the Gods. Magic is a means to an end while religion ends in itself.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Though Edward Tylor and James Frazer ideas and theories were highly respected and their contributions to the field of anthropology are recognized with gratitude to this day, yet some criticisms were raised against the works of these two anthropologists. Tylor and Frazer were armchair anthropologists which mean that they gathered their data through secondary sources and relied on the information and accounts of other anthropologists, missionaries and on the tales of colonialist soldiers. They had never been to the field and never had a firsthand experience of a specific culture. Moreover, Tylor’s non conformist Quaker parentage and his educational, intellectual and religious background gave him a strong aversion towards religion and his biasness is reflected in his workings. He referred to magic and other occult sciences as ‘bastard science’ and asserted that there was no truth value at all in the ‘whole monstrous farrago’ (Tambiah 1990). He linked science with reform and asserted that science is the only way to human progress. He had a profound commitment to the science of social development. He concluded his second volume of <i>Primitive Culture</i>, his famous book about the minds and culture of primitive people which was published in 1871, with these words: “To the promoters of what is sound and reformers of what is faulty in modern culture, ethnography has double help to give. To impress men’s minds with a doctrine of development, will lead them….to continue the progressive work of the past ages” (ibid).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> James Frazer evolutionary theory that divides the human history into the age of magic, religion and science was disapproved by Bronislaw Malinowski. He argued that human history has not evolved through time but all the three phenomena coexist and are present in a society at all times. Malinowski did an extensive fieldwork among the Trobriand Islanders during the First World War. He explained that though the Trobriand society is technologically backward and science has not developed and flourished much yet science exists in its rudimentary shape here (Tambiah 1990). He backs up his argument by pointing out to the canoes built by Islanders for the purpose of fishing and other activities. He argues that the buildings of canoes mean that the people have some sort of skills and craftiness which indicates that science is not at all nonexistent in this society. Malinowski said, “If by science be understood a body of rules and conceptions, based on experiences and derived from it by logical inference, embodied in material achievements and in a fixed form tradition and carried on by some sort of social organization” then even the lowest savage has science however rudimentary (ibid). Moreover, Malinowski while rejecting the evolutionary theory argues that the primitive people did not rely merely on magic for their activities. They believed that empirical and scientific knowledge is also necessary to get things done. For example, at the time of wars other than magical spells and rituals physical strength and fighting skills were also necessary to win the wars. Furthermore, to get better crops the Trobriand Islanders made use of both their scientific knowledge and magic. Moreover, Malinowski negates the fusing of magic and science in one sphere and religion in another. He argues that magic and religion should be put together in one sphere i.e. sacred because these phenomena involve traditional acts and observances that are regarded by natives as sacred while science belongs to the profane sphere which he related to arts and crafts which were carried out on the basis of careful empirical observation of natural processes and a firm belief in nature’s regularity (ibid). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Malinowski defined religion and magic from a functionalist perspective and argued that it plays an important psychological and social function in a society while linking science to purely empirical or practical functions. He explained that every religion has two entities that is a firm belief in ‘Providence’ and ‘Immortality’. Providence means that every individual who believes in the existence of God communicates and make connection with Him for his troubles and problems because the supernatural agent is in sympathy towards man’s destiny (Tambiah 1990). Immortality deals with the question of death and the life after death whether it is reincarnation or some other form of afterlife. Malinowski argues that the belief of individuals in these aspects of religion help them to cope with their psychological stress and uncertainty. In contrast, science does not answer these essential questions and someone who only lives his life on the principles of science would find himself in complete hopelessness. Religion is a social and moral phenomenon that keeps a society cohesive and provides a light of hope to the people. Max Weber in one of his writings dispels the idea that science is the way to true being, the way to true art, the way to true nature, the way to true God, and the way to true happiness (Weber 1918). Tolstoi has quoted the value of science in these words, “Science is meaningless because it gives no answer to the only question important for us: what shall we do and how shall we live?” (ibid). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> The evolutionary theory put forward by James Frazer says that human history started with the age of magic followed by the age of religion and in the end that is in our time science arrived and rejected its predecessors because science gives answers for the events that people before explained with the principles of magic and religion. But if we look at the most technologically advanced and so called civilized societies like that of the United States of America, we find out that religion or the belief that some supernatural agent exists still persists in this highly secularized society. <span style="background-color: white;">For example, with regard to the origin of human beings Americans and Europeans are exposed to a creationist account on the one hand that is God placed humans on earth and an evolutionary account on the other that is humans evolved from different kinds of living things (). Even in the primitive societies like that of Azande in South Sudan people do not only believe in the naturalistic explanation when a granary collapses on a group of men (Evans-Prichard 1937). They ask that why did the structure of granary collapse at this particular time on these particular men. They turn to supernatural phenomenon that is witchcraft for the explanations. So whether it’s primitive society or an advanced, people use both the natural and supernatural explanations to interpret the very same events. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Edward Tylor and James Frazer in their comfortable armchairs collected the ethnographic material and based on those materials formulated the theories and demarcated the boundaries between magic, religion and science. They referred to science as a savior of human kind while looked down on the institutions of religion and magic and argued that they are the ‘survivals’ of our barbaric past. Throughout the history of mankind we come across that when one institution becomes powerful it marginalizes and relegates its predecessor institutions to the lower edge. During the medieval times, when the Church got powerful it marginalized magic by labeling it as a leftover from a barbaric past. Due to which the history saw a brutal massacre of about 50,000 people over the period of two centuries mostly by the religious figures in the name of witch hunts. Similarly, Islam, Judaism and other major religions of the world reject magic with contempt. With the decline in the power of Church and the rise of science as a dominant source of knowledge, the latter marginalized religion and also magic by arguing that science now explains all those events that the primitive and less technologically advanced people explained through religion and magic. In this context, we cannot blame Frazer and Tylor for their biasness towards magic and religion in their writings; they were just a part of the whole historical scenario. Moreover, it is assumed that science and religion are on the two extreme ends and those who believe in the principles of science like natural and social scientists do not usually believe in religion and vice versa. Nietzsche, an influential German philosopher remembered for his rejection of Christian values, admitted the fact that science cannot exist without the presence of some faith in the hearts of scientists. As he said,” But you will have gathered what I am driving at, namely, that it is still metaphysical faith upon which our science rests-that even we seekers after knowledge today, we godless anti metaphysicians still take our fire, too, from the flame lit by a faith that is thousands of years old, that Christian faith which was also the faith of Plato, that God is the truth, that truth is divine” (The Gay Science). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><i><u><span style="color: red;">Written By: Jawad Karim</span></u></i></b></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-37400410579393300122012-06-10T07:07:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Public and Private - Defining The Boundaries<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The divide between the public and private sphere has long been a contentious issue for political theory. With relation to modern forms of democracy, a strong need for defining the boundaries for the two spheres has emerged. However, with new complexities surfacing they remain blurred. Several theorists such as Seyla Benhabib, Saba Mahmood, Jean Cohen and Will Kymlicka, have viewed this subject with varying perspectives. The divide between public and private has always been such that the distinction is made on the basis of masculinity and femininity. Household roles have always been considered fit for women, whereas the political and social activities are considered suitable for men. This has made notions of progress and rationality attached to the public sphere, and the concept of traditions and religious allegiance to fall into the private sphere. (Herzog and Braude). This paper aims to review Benahabib’s, Mahmood’s and Kymlicka’s perspective regarding the debatable topic of defining boundaries between what constitutes public and private. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It is impossible to ignore feminist scholarship when viewing the public private debate. The main aim of many schools of feminist thought remains to defy the defined roles for women in private sphere and to take their access to those fields which have always been considered public. Therefore, which arenas constitute the private and public sphere is something of immense importance to them. Benhabib talks about the L’affair du foulard or the scarf affair that sprung up in France in 1989. Three girls were banned from wearing a head scarf at the public school they attended. With the support of the ex-president of the National Federation for Muslims in France, they continued to wear the scarf and gathered supporters. This in real terms implied that they were now viewing the scarf as a political gesture and an outward manifestation of their personal identity and beliefs. In 2004, the French National Assembly banned the wearing of all religious symbols in public schools. This was felt by most as an attack mainly on the headscarf worn by Muslims. The state did not want such religious symbols to be worn by students as being propagated in the public sphere. The Supreme Court wanted the state to remain neutral. Therefore, in 1989 they issued a judgment in which they allowed the wearing of religious symbols but prohibited the propagation of any such beliefs on to others. They left the decision of defining the headscarf on to the school. (Benhabib, 184-188). This was a major weakness since this was a matter the state should have addressed directly. A contention was visible over the divide between personal liberty of wearing a headscarf that appeared to be a private matter and the neutral atmosphere a liberal and democratic state needs to maintain in the public arena. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Benhabib brings forth the concept of democratic iterations through which issues such as the scarf affair can be better dealt with. These would include the public arguments and exchange of claims through which such concepts can be contested. (Benhabib, 179). France faced the dilemma of whether boundaries of public - private should be breached in relation to maintaining a balance between the long cherished liberal values of freedom of expression and the growing pressures exerted by multiculturalism taking root. In her opinion, the state should have made use of democratic iterations to take into account the viewpoint of the girls wearing the scarf. (Benahabib, 197). It is possible that most of them felt it to be a sign of liberation from tradition and a way to come out in the public sphere and express their inner identity. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Similar to this was the German headscarf case. When the matter went to court a substantial case could not be made in favor of respecting pluralism with allowing religious symbols to be worn by civil servants working in public space. Thus, the wearing of the headscarf was taken to be a sign of the teacher’s specific allegiance towards the religion of Islam. (Benhabib, 200-201). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Benhabib - belonging to the Kantian school of thought - suggests that the boundaries between the public private need to be expanded. In view of the conflicts arising between pluralism and upholding liberal values, Benhabib proposes that the state is justified in defining some sort of boundary between the public and private. However, it is noteworthy that even the measures of democratic iterations as suggested would take place on the framework of moral universalism. Therefore, there appears to be a chance that the discourse of moral universalism might end up undermining what may be liberation for the other. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><a name='more'></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">However, Benhabib’s solution of democratic iterations is not very much in line with postmodernists such as Habermas, who feel that discussion on public issues - those that involve everyone - must not be debated upon as every perspective cannot be granted equal weight. Benhabib feels that debate regarding the conception of the good life must be brought forward into the public sphere. If this does not happen then the existing gender bias will define the universal norms that must be followed, leaving no room for difference. Benhabib is in line with some major concerns of postmodernism as she is also of the view that through discourse an idealized form of reason can be achieved. (Canaday). However, she is skeptical of the ideals of equality and liberty in today’s democracy. This is because the very norms of equality and tolerance fail to account for difference and the rhetoric of enlightenment creates an illusion. She is a defender of difference as she argues that debate in the public sphere should not aim to achieve knowledge on the “general interest”, since this is likely to suppress differing voices.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Jean Cohen’s article on “Democracy, Difference and right of privacy” also argues for the place of difference. Infact similar to Benhabib she is of the view that a true democratic state must guarantee voice to difference. She cites the abortion issue as a matter pertinent to the issue of the public private dichotomy. According to her the right to abortion should be provided by state but whether it is used or not is a private matter and so must be left to the individual involved. (Cohen, 207). If we consider the scarf affair in this light it is reasonable to think that defining legislation in terms of banning the headscarf is not appropriate rather it should be a matter left to the individual. The abortion issue also came to light in the changing social circumstances of women’s growing emancipation and so a need was felt for providing this right to the public to choose for themselves albeit it would be legally allowed. Similarly with today’s multicultural societies and the growing identity crisis among minorities living in foreign homelands it seems quite appropriate to allow the wearing of religious symbols such as the headscarf. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In her essay “The Rights of Others”, Benhabib talks about the right to hospitality. She is a follower of Kant’s conditional hospitality theory. According to Kant, anyone has the right to space in a foreign land for a temporary time as long as he or she does not become the cause of any destruction. This rests on Kant’s notion that hospitality is basically a right and not a virtue or favor that one country does to another. Every human being has equal rights over the surface of the earth and these boundaries are created by man. (Benhabib, 26-39). In contrast to this, postmodernists such as Derida feel that hospitality for foreigners should be unconditional. Such an approach, however, leads to crises such as terrorism. (Rosenfeld). What Derida is essentially proposing is that a form of care and love that exists in the private sphere usually is projected on to the public sphere. Unconditional form of care is generally found in personal relationships. However, applying that to the level of the state will not be without a cost. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In order to bring forth a perspective based on liberalism and the public private dichotomy Kymlicka’s “Multicultural Citizenship” is an insightful resource. Kymlicka talks about the conflict which arises in a liberal state when it has to balance the ideals of liberty and tolerance. A question crops up with respect to the states responsibility of protecting religious minorities and giving them freedom. What if the tenets of a minority go against the principles of liberalism? It is not clear whether liberalism cherishes individual autonomy more or tolerance. Today the Western notion of religious tolerance, for instance, is based on the concept of freedom of conscience. (Kymlicka, 158). This, however, may not be in line with some particular religious values.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Kymlicka discusses the Rawlsian point of view regarding this dilemma. Rawls argues that the extent of autonomy should be limited. For instance, he feels that in the public sphere everyone must adhere to liberal ideas and values. In other words, people should be communitarians in public and must uphold the values most cherished in their society. Rawls is also of the view that not every community will be able to accept liberal principles as supreme, such as in the case of individual freedom. (Kymlicka, 158-165). In religions such as Islam, apostasy is a sin which is punishable by a death sentence. This creates a dilemma for the state since a liberal society would provide every individual with the right to choose or renounce their faith. However, a Muslim community residing in such a society would differ. Therefore, if the Western model of freedom of individual conscience is applied, then in effect we are sidelining difference and imposing the majority’s standpoint. Kymlicka feels that it is not appropriate for the state to impose liberal values on all its citizens or else it will amount to an infringement into the private life of individuals. The state’s role regarding religion should be such that the autonomy of the minorities is taken away. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> In this respect Kymlicka quotes the example of Wisconsin v Yoder which concerned the Amish community in America. They wanted to restrict their children’s education from the age of 16 onwards so that their knowledge about the outside world would be limited. The Supreme Court accepted the claim of the Amish although it went against the basic principle of autonomy. (Kymlicka, 160,161). Sandel - being a communitarian - also agrees with this decision of the court as according to him greater good for the society would result. This is an example when the State did not intervene in the private sphere of the individuals of a certain community and so respected the public private divide. However, the state’s success in defending its liberal conception of autonomy remains questionable. Kymlicka is quite considerate towards difference and feels that it is not appropriate to enforce liberal values through legislation. Rather, they should be popularized through reasoning. (Kymlicka, 168). Therefore, multiculturalism and difference in his point of view must be respected and minorities must be given their due space. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> From the lens of most feminist scholarship, traditional Islamic societies tend to support clear cut divides between public and private spheres - keeping women’s roles confined to the private. Saba Mahmood, in her book “The subject of Freedom”, talks about the Women’s Mosque Movement in Egypt since the 1970s in which the women initially held lessons at home and then at mosques. (Mahmood, 3-4). The mosques are generally considered male domains however this movement was a breakthrough since it transcended the definite boundaries. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> S</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">aba Mahmood also considers the issue of modesty in Islam. The veil in many Islamic cultures is seen as the only rightful way of realizing modesty. However, a debate continues to exist in Islamic circles as to whether such a necessary relationship exists or not. The issue is a result of cultural norms in most cases which bring the issue of the veil into the public sphere despite it being considered a private act. Mahmood takes a radical approach as she argues that the foundations of the public private dichotomy need to be reassessed. She feels that there is no need for discourse to take place on issues such as veiling as they are matters of rights. Moreover, discourse on such issues as proposed by Benhabib and other Kantians would tend to take place on the framework of moral universalism as suggested by Kant. This in reality would lead the viewpoint of one party to overdo the “other” whereas according to Mahmood the “other’s” voice must essentially be heard.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> What today’s secular and modern societies entail is a limitation on religion to the private sphere. Religion entering the public sphere is assumed to bring forth regimes such as the Taliban in Afghanistan - where certain interpretations of religious practices are forced upon the entire society leaving very little room for individual liberty. Saba Mahmood contends that the state policies of banning the wearing of headscarves, such as in France, are not justifiable considering the public private boundaries. She feels that when the state imposes such a policy, it is in effect making a private decision a matter of public concern. If religion is strictly to be an issue of the private sphere then the state’s attitude of banning religious symbols is not plausible. (Mahmood). Further adding to the injustice is the fact that the women involved in these affairs such as in France, Germany and Turkey were never heard. The weakness of the feminist normative argument is also brought forward since they fail to view the argument of those women who see the wearing of headscarf as a liberating symbol with pride attached to it. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Saba Mahmood is of the view that the framework of a clear cut divide between public and private especially with regards to religion creates immense problems. The problem with this standpoint is that it leaves no space for understanding issues such as the veil with a different perspective. Either an individual is labeled as oppressed or as liberated simply with regards to her manner of dressing. This is somewhat limiting the scope defining liberation. Mahmood argues for understanding the concept of issues such as the headscarf and in defining public private boundaries with a different perspective, as it is a complex issue regarding more insight. At first sight Mahmood’s argument appears quite radical. However, considering the complexity of the issues she has addressed it seems quite reasonable to keep the issues of multiculturalism away from public debate and consider them solely a private right so as to respect difference. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Overall all three authors that this paper has reviewed have considered the public private dichotomy in the context of democracy and difference in considerable depth. I have found Kymlicka’s argument to be most satisfying. He has suggested that the liberal majority in a society must sit together with the minority, not for the purpose of convincing them to adopt liberal values, but for the attainment of peaceful coexistence. He has discussed this issue not just with respect to a majority minority conflict but also with the conflicts that liberal and illiberal nations face. It is not appropriate for liberal nations to judge others, especially third world countries, along strict liberal standards. It is important for them to realize that liberalism may not be the most suitable ideology for any society - especially those third world countries which are at a different historical point and which possess a completely different culture and tradition. Therefore, it is essential to realize the existence of multiculturalism in today’s world and have an open attitude towards difference. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-34886826925438368012012-06-10T07:00:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Introduction Of Slaves in Latin America - Economic and Demographic Contexts<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Slavery and other forms of forced labor is an issue that is the subject of scorn and despise in today’s modern world. However the irony lies in the fact that the nations, mostly colonizers, who criticize it the most today themselves at some point in time used this institution to their advantage when they conquered and ruled foreign lands. The story of Latin America is not very different. The Spaniards on their arrival not only brought African slaves along with them but also developed different forms of forced labor for the natives such as encomiendas, yana etc. There were few arguments in favor of slave trade such as the excuse to spread the message of the Church and to evangelize as many people as possible. However a close look at the annals of colonial history shows us that economic gains were the driving force behind the acts of the colonizers. The ambitious cult of the Spaniards which made them take the long and hazardous journey to the New World was the driving force behind bringing African slaves and engaging natives into forced labor. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> In the wake of Spanish conquests in Peru and New Spain the native societies experienced immense structural, economic and social changes. The Spaniards believed in Aristotle’s doctrine of natural slavery, whereby societies that were rational and reasonable and had accepted the true faith i.e. Christianity were meant to be Masters whereas those who were governed by brutality, passion and infidelity were eternally slaves. This implied that the Spaniards considered the natives as providers of free labor for them. One of the most major impacts of the arrival of the Spanish was the fall of the native Indian population. Although very accurate accounts are not available today yet records suggest that the native population experienced a decline of 85% in a century after they arrived. One of the major reasons for this was that the Spanish brought diseases such as smallpox, mumps, measles etc along with them from Europe. The spread of these alien diseases meant that the natives who did not have any immunity against them easily fell victim. Usually it would take up three or four generations to build up resistance against such diseases. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Moreover it has been suggested that the Spaniards used violence and brutality which lead to poor health conditions and malnourishment. The native’s crops were also eaten up by the animals of the Spaniards which meant that they were left with limited supplies of food.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Thereafter many natives accepting the Spanish domination as their land’s fate or divine will, began committing suicides and infanticides etc. Such decline in native population was on the other hand accompanied by an increasing Spanish population as more and more professionals and artisans from Spain poured in. The decreasing native population suggested a dearth of labor for the Spaniards as many of them possessed very economically important skills. This situation brought to the forefront the African slaves. The blacks travelled to Latin America along with their Spanish masters. They included men and women. Demographically, most of the Spaniards were young men who were accompanied by few Spanish women; therefore black women were also brought to the newly conquered territory. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Curiously the Spaniards could also consider transferring Spanish masses to the Indies to use as labor. However, during this time many cities of the Spanish empire were beginning to grow and thrive. Besides this the agriculture sector was operating now on free wage labor basis. Finally, the fact that the military force was being developed provided another niche to the Spanish masses.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Therefore, African slaves seemed a perfect choice given these circumstances. Added to this black labor was completely mobile and they were kinless which meant they could be transported anywhere and made to work. In case of the natives it was very hard to make them shift. Moreover, there remained a threat of rebellion as they were still living in their native land and developed community. However in cases where cruelty reached enormous heights there were instances of revolt from the blacks even as in case of the “Maroons” who ran away and settled and developed their own organized community. The Blacks soon surfaced in colonial society. Inter marrying took place between blacks, Indians and Spanish leading to mixed breeds such as mulattoes and zambos.</span><br /><a name='more'></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> On finding rich reserves of precious metals in the Indies, the Spaniards required even more labor for extraction. It is true to a great extent that some form of manual labor existed even before the arrival of the Spanish. The pre-existing economic structure appears to be similar to the theory of modern day socialism. The government provided whatever its subjects needed and the nobility was responsible for the administration. People did not have freedom of choice and there was no concept of leisure time but it seems that these were not important concepts for the natives of the time. There were also artisans and craftsmen of an itinerant nature. The Spaniards simply added a monetary concept to this already existing concept of communal cooperation.( Weidner, Forced Labor In Colonial Peru).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Sugar plantations were a major part of agriculture at that time. Sugarcane, not being an indigenous crop of the Americas, was first brought by Christopher Columbus from Europe. Harvesting the sugarcane crop tends to be an arduous and irksome job and initially the natives were employed for this job. However, a large part of them were already severely hit by European diseases. Some of them ran away from such harsh labor. Thereafter the Crown realized that they had to rely on African slaves. A healthy, adult slave was expected to be able to plow, plant, and harvest five acres of sugar. Sugar planting was back-breaking work. Lines of slaves, men, women and children, moved across the fields, row by row, hand-planting thousands of seed-cane stems. Between 5,000 and 8,000 pieces had to be planted to produce one acre of sugar cane. Workdays in the fields typically lasted from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with a noon-time break of perhaps two hours. Not only was the nature of the work exhausting but also the working conditions were quite barbaric. Supervisors would even whip the slaves during the work in order to improve their performance or speed. After harvesting the process of boiling took place to convert the cane into crystal form. This was even worse as many slaves received severe burns or suffered from swollen body parts due to the intense heat. Sometimes work shifts would last 18 hours and not only this but threats and force were used to compel them to continue the labor. This pattern of sugar plantations initially existed in Brazil and then was later followed by other Latin as well as European countries. With more time sugar became a very important source of earning for the Crown. In British and French colonies such as Jamaica and Saint Domingue it became the most important export accounting for two thirds of the total exports.(West, Sugar and Slavery).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> One of the initial measures taken by the Spaniards with regard to American labor was the creation of “encomiendas”. Most of the Spanish conquerors were assigned a group of natives who were to provide labor for them. In return their Spanish Masters were to provide protection and sustenance and most importantly to evangelize them. However, on close scrutiny it appears that encomiendas actually reduced the Crown’s revenue. This occurred because the Spanish were not allowed to move the native encomiendas to other geographical locations which would yield better returns such as the silver mines in Mexico and Peru. Moreover, unlike slaves, they could not be traded or rented to other Spaniards which again meant that their cost per person was high for the Masters. Nevertheless, the Spanish continued the use of native labor. The Crown had strong reasons to continue doing this. Firstly, it had to provide some sort of incentive to the conquistadors as they would have to face alien conditions in the Indies. For this purpose the Crown struck a bargain with them. The leaders of the conquests or “caudillos” were specified a return and an area of authority. In return for this, the “caudillos” had to raise capital and a labor force for the Crown. Labor was one of the abundant resources available in the Indies and so it was in the best interest of the Spanish to exploit. The Church also wanted the Americans to be free people and not to be inflicted with harsh labor; however, in the initial years after the conquest they had to adopt a certain system of extracting native labor otherwise they would have forgone large amounts of wealth. Another major reason why the Crown preferred encomiendas over slavery was because of inheritance restrictions on them which meant that encomenderos could not retain the encomiendas for generations. Furthermore, if the Crown wanted it could confiscate encomiendas especially in case of signs of rebellion from the conquistadores. The encomiendas also processed a right not to be dislocated unlike slaves. The Church felt that dislocation of natives could lead to their depopulation as they would be exposed to different climatic conditions. The institution of encomiendas could have proved economically less productive as compared to slavery. However, the Church had to cater to security considerations at the time.(Yeager, Encomienda or Slavery).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Soon the institution of encomienda began to be abused in several ways by the nobles and so the Crown passed the laws of 1542, banning encomiendas. It was replaced by “repartimientos” or “mita”. This made colonial administrators in charge of the natives. Under this system work requirements stipulated that all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60 work 2 weeks per year and that no more than 5% of a community’s male population be absent at one time.(Kent, Latin America: Region and People). The type of labor that could be extracted was totally on the administrator’s discretion. Mostly work included working in mines, on agricultural land and also on public works. The institution of mita was not very much the brainchild of the colonizers; rather it existed in some form during the Aztec and Inca empires as well. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> More than 80% of the population was involved in agriculture and ranching and mining being the foremost activity. Until the 18<sup>th</sup> century the policy of the Crown was to exchange precious metals extracted from the Indies for manufactured goods from Europe. This required them to engage maximum natives in labor. The major silver mines opened in Peru and Mexico in the 16<sup>th</sup> century. Potosi’ in Bolivia and Zacatecas in Mexico were the largest mines. The Crown owned all subsoil rights and so the ambitious Spaniards felt that in order to exploit the resources of the New World they had to make use of the natives’ physical skills and labor. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Although the concept of slavery is often discussed alongside forced labor in the Indies yet significant differences exist. It is obvious that the main concern of the Spaniards was to exploit the natural resources of the area through mining and agriculture and to extract tributes from the natives. A large portion of the initial lot of Spanish believed that the natives due to their brutality were meant to be slaves. However, with the passage of time this view also changed, with individuals such as Bartolome’ de las Casas advocating the rights of the native populations and opposing the violence inflicted by colonizers. This also drove the Spaniards to bring in more African slaves and extract from them the type of work that they feared the natives could not perform. The Blacks always had a certain stigma attached to them and occupied a distinct place in the Latin society of the time. Moreover, it is obvious to a great extent that in certain types of labor the Spanish trusted the blacks much more than the natives. This was because they were aware that the natives were in familiar territory and between local well knit communities. This indicated towards more chances of revolt and rebellion from the natives. Also, they had come under foreign rule recently and so this idea was still something new to them and was still itching in their minds. On the other hand, the Blacks had been slaves for generations under the control of the Europeans. With the beginning of the 18<sup>th</sup> and 19<sup>th</sup> centuries forced labor soon began to take the form of debt bondage with natives taking loans and providing their labor in return. When drawing parallels one is bound to notice that the natives paid tributes to their Spanish encomienderos. This consisted of a proportion of the yield of the land on which they worked. African slaves, on the other hand, had no such responsibility. They were completely dependent on their masters. Slavery has a concept of “ownership” attached to it. This is the biggest distinction between a slave and an encomienda or native laborer. Slaves were owned by the Spaniards whereas the natives could not be owned by them. Unlike slaves, regarding the natives the colonizers had to consider their kinship ties. Often in later times entire families would be involved in debt bondage. A slave had no links with his kinsmen and so he could be transported anywhere for work. In case of natives the colonizers had to consider the community bonds and geographical location. Another major task that the encomienderos were assigned with was to evangelize the locals. In case of black slaves, this argument is put forward by circles in favor of slave trade however trends throughout the world show that the attitude of colonizers towards African slaves developed a sort of repulsiveness towards Christianity and many of them even converted to other religions such as Islam. On the whole it is possible to argue that even native labor despite its differences was a disguised form of slavery. In both there have been cases of abuse, violence and intense malnourishment, which by today’s standards seem highly brutal and barbaric. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> In hindsight institutions such as slavery and forced labor have been the center of intense debate and controversy. However, they have to be viewed alongside the social and historical context of the time. One of the major purposes behind the conquests to the New World was no doubt to gain wealth from these areas. After the violent takeover and the fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires, the Spanish looked forward to attaining pecuniary benefits. King Philip while addressing his senior administration in 1617 ordered the entire royal machinery to be as efficient as possible so as to extract the maximum wealth from the Indies. Initially the tribute system under the encomiendas seemed the easiest way of benefitting from the local resources. However, soon with the passing of the 1542 laws banning encomiendas many Spaniards looked on to mining and agriculture sectors. In order to extract maximum yield on sugar plantations and also considering the harsh work, the Spaniards had no choice but to employ African slaves. Thus, the African slaves formed an integral part of colonial Latin America’s economy, particularly Cuba and Brazil and especially Cuba where sugar production continues to be a major industry. <o:p></o:p></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-38135295654400244682012-06-10T06:53:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Different Orders Of Sufism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Different orders of Sufism….</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Sufism..<o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Definition<o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sufism</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">or</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">taṣawwuf</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(Arabic<span style="background-color: white;">:</span> <span style="background-color: white;">تصوّف) is defined by its adherents as the inner,</span> mystical <span style="background-color: white;">dimension of</span> Islam.<span style="background-color: white;">A practitioner of this tradition is generally known as a</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ṣūfī</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">(</span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">صُوفِيّ</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">). Another name for a Sufi is</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Dervish<span style="background-color: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Classical Sufi scholars have defined Sufism as "a science whose objective is the reparation of the heart and turning it away from all else but God."</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Alternatively, in the words of the</span> Darqawi <span style="background-color: white;">Sufi teacher</span> Ahmad ibn Ajiba<span style="background-color: white;">, "a science through which one can know how to travel into the</span> presence of the Divine<span style="background-color: white;">, purify one's inner self from filth, and beautify it with a variety of praiseworthy traits."<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Classical Sufis were characterised by their attachment to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">dhikr</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">(a practice of repeating the names of God) and</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">asceticism</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. Sufism gained adherents among a number of Muslims as a reaction against the worldliness of the early</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Umayyad Caliphate</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">(661-750 CE). Sufis have spanned several continents and cultures over a millennium, at first expressed through Arabic, then through Persian, Turkish and a dozen other languages.</span> <span style="background-color: white;">"Orders" (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqah" title="Tariqah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ṭuruq</span></a>), which are either</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni" title="Sunni"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sunnī</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">or</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shī'ī</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">or mixed</span> <span style="background-color: white;">in doctrine, trace many of their original precepts from the</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophets_of_Islam" title="Prophets of Islam"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Islamic Prophet</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Muhammad</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">through his cousin</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali" title="Ali"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">'Alī</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, with the notable exception of the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi">Naqshbandi</a> </span>who trace their origins through the first</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph" title="Caliph"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Caliph</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abu Bakr</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Other exclusive</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqah" title="Tariqah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">schools of Sufism</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">describe themselves as distinctly Sufi.</span> <span style="background-color: white;">Modern</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sufis</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">often perform</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">dhikr</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">after the conclusion of prayers.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Some mainstream scholars of Islam define sufism as simply the name for the inner or esoteric dimension of Islam.René Guénon in 'Insights into Islamic Esoterism and Taoism ' (Sophia Perennis 2003) contended that Sufism was the esoteric aspect of Islam supported and complemented by exoteric practices and Islamic law. However, according to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idries_Shah" title="Idries Shah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Idries Shah</span></a>, the Sufi philosophy is universal in nature, its roots predating the rise of Islam and the other modern-day religions, save for perhaps</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Buddhism</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">and</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Jainism</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">; likewise, some Muslims consider Sufism outside the sphere of Islam.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><u></u></span><br /><a name='more'></a><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><u><br /></u></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><u><b>Literal Background….</b><o:p></o:p></u></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Etymology and origin of the term…</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Two origins of the word 'sufi' have been suggested. Commonly, the lexical root of the word is traced to</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ṣafā</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">(صَفا), which in Arabic means "purity". Another origin is</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ṣūf</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">(صُوف), "</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool" title="Wool"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">wool</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">", referring to the simple cloaks the early Muslim ascetics wore.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The two were combined by the Sufi al-Rudhabari who said, "The Sufi is the one who wears wool on top of purity."</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">The wool cloaks were sometimes a designation of their initiation into the Sufi order<sup>,</sup>Others have suggested that word comes from the term</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ahl aṣ-ṣuffah</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">('the people of the bench'), who were a group of impoverished companions of the Prophet Muhammad who held regular gatherings of</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ḏ</span><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ikr</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">According to the medieval Iranian scholar</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Ray%E1%B8%A5%C4%81n_al-B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" title="Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abū Rayḥān al-Bīrūnī</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">the word</span> <span style="background-color: white;">sūfi</span> <span style="background-color: white;">is a derivation from the</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Greek word</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">"sofia" (</span></span><span lang="EL" style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">σοφία</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">), meaning wisdom<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Chronological Background…<o:p></o:p></u></b></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><u>History of Sufism…</u></b></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Origins…<span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In its early stages of development Sufism effectively referred to nothing more than the internalization of Islam.According to one perspective, it is directly from the Qur'an, constantly recited, meditated, and experienced, that Sufism proceeded, in its origin and its development.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Others have held that Sufism is the strict emulation of the way of</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Muhammad</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, through which the heart's connection to the Divine is strengthened.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">From the traditional Sufi point of view, the esoteric teachings of Sufism were transmitted from Muhammad to those who had the capacity to acquire the direct experiential</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">gnosis</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">of God, which was passed on from teacher to student through the centuries. Some of this transmission is summarized in texts, but most is not. Important contributions in writing are attributed to</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwais_al-Qarni" title="Uwais al-Qarni"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Uwais al-Qarni</span></a>, Harrm bin Hian,</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_Ul-Basri" title="Hasan Ul-Basri"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hasan Basri</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">and Sayid ibn al-Mussib, who are regarded as the first Sufis in the earliest generations of Islam.</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harith_al-Muhasibi" title="Harith al-Muhasibi"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Harith al-Muhasibi</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">was the first one to write about moral psychology.</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabi%27a_al-%27Adawiyya" title="Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Rabia Basri</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">was a Sufi known for her love and passion for God, expressed through her poetry.</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayazid_Bastami" title="Bayazid Bastami"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Bayazid Bastami</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">was among the first theorists of Sufism; he concerned himself with</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanaa_(Sufism)" title="Fanaa (Sufism)"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">fanā</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">and</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baqaa" title="Baqaa"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">baqā</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white;">, the state of annihilating the self in the presence of the divine, accompanied by clarity concerning</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_(theology)" title="World (theology)"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">worldly</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">phenomena derived from that perspective.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sufism had a long history already before the subsequent institutionalization of Sufi teachings into devotional orders (tarîqât) in the early Middle Ages.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Almost all extant Sufi orders trace their chains of transmission (silsila) back to Muhammad via his cousin and son-in-law Ali. The</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Naqshbandi</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">order is a notable exception to this rule, as it traces the origin of its teachings from Muhammad to the first Islamic Caliph</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abu Bakr</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Different devotional styles and traditions developed over time, reflecting the perspectives of different masters and the accumulated cultural wisdom of the orders. Typically all of these concerned themselves with the understanding of subtle knowledge (</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">gnosis</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">), education of the heart to purify it of baser instincts, the love of God, and approaching God through a well-described hierarchy of enduring spiritual stations (maqâmât) and more transient spiritual states (ahwâl).<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Formalization of doctrine</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Towards the end of the first millennium CE, a number of manuals began to be written summarizing the doctrines of Sufism and describing some typical Sufi practices. Two of the most famous of these are now available in English translation: the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Kashf al-Mahjûb</span> <span style="background-color: white;">of</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hujwiri" title="Hujwiri"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hujwiri</span></a>, and the</span> <span style="background-color: white;">Risâla</span> <span style="background-color: white;">of Qushayri.</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism#cite_note-31"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[32]</span></sup></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Two of Imam</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Ghazali" title="Al Ghazali"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Al Ghazali</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">'s greatest treatises, the "Revival of Religious Sciences" and the "Alchemy of Happiness," argued that Sufism originated from the Qur'an and was thus compatible with mainstream Islamic thought, and did not in any way contradict Islamic Law—being instead necessary to its complete fulfillment. This became the mainstream position among Islamic scholars for centuries, challenged only recently on the basis of selective use of a limited body of texts<sup>[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">example needed</span></a>]</sup>. Ongoing efforts by both traditionally trained Muslim scholars and Western academics are making Imam Al-Ghazali's works available in English translation for the first time,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism#cite_note-32"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[33]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">allowing English-speaking readers to judge for themselves the compatibility of Islamic Law and Sufi doctrine.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Growth of Sufi influence in Islamic cultures</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The spread of Sufism has been considered a definitive factor in the spread of Islam, and in the creation of integrally Islamic cultures, especially in Africa<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism#cite_note-33"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[34]</span></a></sup></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">and Asia. Recent academic work on these topics has focused on the role of Sufism in creating and propagating the culture of the</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ottoman</span></a>world,</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism#cite_note-34"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[35]</span></sup></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">and in resisting European imperialism in North Africa and South Asia.</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism#cite_note-35"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[36]</span></sup></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Between the 13th and 16th centuries CE, Sufism produced a flourishing intellectual culture throughout the Islamic world, a "Golden Age" whose physical artifacts are still present. In many places, a lodge (known variously as a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaouia" title="Zaouia"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">zaouia</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white;">,</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khanqah" title="Khanqah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">khanqah</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white;">, or</span> <span style="background-color: white;">tekke</span><span style="background-color: white;">) would be endowed through a pious foundation in perpetuity (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">waqf</span></a>) to provide a gathering place for Sufi adepts, as well as lodging for itinerant seekers of knowledge. The same system of endowments could also be used to pay for a complex of buildings, such as that surrounding the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul, including a lodge for Sufi seekers, a</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospice" title="Hospice"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">hospice</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">with kitchens where these seekers could serve the poor and/or complete a period of initiation, a library, and other structures. No important domain in the civilization of Islam remained unaffected by Sufism in this period<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Different orders of Sufism…</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Current Sufi orders include</span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_%27Alawiyya" title="Ba 'Alawiyya"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ba 'Alawiyya</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chishti" title="Chishti"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Chishti</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi" title="Naqshbandi"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Naqshbandi</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%27matull%C4%81h%C4%AB" title="Ni'matullāhī"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Nimatullahi</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">5): </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mevlevi<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">6): </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadhili" title="Shadhili"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shadhliyya</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">7): </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadiriyyah" title="Qadiriyyah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Qadiriyyah</span></a></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">8):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qalandariyya" title="Qalandariyya"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Qalandariyya</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">9): </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarwari_Qadiri" title="Sarwari Qadiri"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sarwari Qadiri</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">,<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">10): <span style="background-color: white;">Azimiyya<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">11):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhrawardiyya" title="Suhrawardiyya"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Suhrawardiyya</span></a></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Explanation about different orders…</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1:: </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba_%27Alawiyya" title="Ba 'Alawiyya"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ba 'Alawiyya</span></a></span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Origin And Foundation...</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">This article is about the sufi order. For the Ba'Alawi family, see</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27Alawi_sadah" title="Ba'Alawi sadah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ba'Alawi sadah</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Ba'Alawi tariqa</span> <span style="background-color: white;">(</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language" title="Arabic language"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Arabic</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">:</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">طريقة آل باعلوي), also known as the</span> <span style="background-color: white;">Tariqa Alawiyya</span> <span style="background-color: white;">is a</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_order" title="Sufi order"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sufi order</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">centered in</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhramawt" title="Hadhramawt"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hadhramawt</span></a>,</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Yemen</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, but now spread across the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Indian Ocean</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">rim along with the</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhrami_diaspora" title="Hadhrami diaspora"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hadhrami diaspora</span></a>. The order is closely tied to the</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%27Alawi_sadah" title="Ba'Alawi sadah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ba'Alawi sadah</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">family.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">It was founded by al-Faqih Muqaddam As-Sayyid Muhammad bin Ali Ba'Alawi al-Husaini, who died in the year 653 AH (1232 CE). He received his</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ijazah</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">from</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Madyan" title="Abu Madyan"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abu Madyan</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">in Morocco via two of his students.</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Madyan" title="Abu Madyan"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abu Madyan</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">was a student of</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Jilani" title="Abdul Qadir Jilani"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abdul Qadir Jilani</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, as well as one of the shaikhs in the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadhili" title="Shadhili"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shadhiliya</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">tariqa chain of spiritual transmitters from Muhammad. The members of this Sufi way are mainly</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">sayyids</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">whose ancestors hail from the valley of</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hadramaut</span></a>, in the southern part of</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Yemen</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, although it is not limited to them.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The chain of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ijazah</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">of spiritual Sufi transmission from al-Faqih Muqaddam Sayyid Muhammad traces back to the Islamic prophet</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Muhammad</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">via his cousin</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali" title="Ali"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ali</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">and from him, his son</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husain" title="Husain"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Husain</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Early beginnings</u></b></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The name Ba'Alawi itself is a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhrami" title="Hadhrami"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hadhrami</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">contraction of the terms Bani 'Alawi or the Clan of 'Alawi.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In the early 4th Century Hijri at 318 H,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Muhajir" title="Ahmad al-Muhajir"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sayyid Ahmad al-Muhaajir</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">bin Isa ar-Rumi bin Muhammad al-Naqib bin</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_al-Uraidhi_ibn_Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ali al-Uraidhi ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ali al-Uraidhi ibn Ja'far al-Sadiq</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">migrated from Basrah, Iraq first to Mecca and Medina, and then to Hadhramout, to avoid the chaos then prevalent in the</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbasid" title="Abbasid"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Abbassid</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">Caliphate, where descendants of Muhammad were continuously being suspected of arson and revolt against the caliph. Most descendants of Muhammad known as</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">sayyids</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">enjoyed much followings due to their steep knowledge in Islam and its teachings, both esoteric and exoteric. Although such personalities may not have political ambitions, having huge followings means that they always attract the suspicions of the caliphate.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The name 'Alawi refers to the grandson of Sayyid Ahmad al-Muhajir, who was the first descendant of</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husain" title="Husain"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Husain</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, Muhammad's grandson, to be born in</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hadramaut</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">and the first to bear such a name.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Thus all the 'Alawi</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">sayyids</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">of</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Hadramaut</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">are his progeny, and his descendants has since spread far and wide to the Arabian Peninsula, India especially in northern states of Surat and Ahmadebad and along the Malabar Coasts, North and West Coast of Africa, India, and the countries of the Malay Archipelago spreading</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni" title="Sunni"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sunni</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">Islam of the</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafii" title="Shafii"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shafii</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">school and the Ba'Alawi Tariqah brand of sufism.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Tarim, Hadhramaut…</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">For about 800 years, the city of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim,_Yemen" title="Tarim, Yemen"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tarim</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in Hadhramaut has been the centre of learning in Islamic jurisprudence or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh"><span style="color: #0645ad;">fiqh</span></a>, notably of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shafi" title="Shafi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Shafi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni" title="Sunni"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sunni</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">school. The masters or early predecessors of the Ba'Alawi Tariqa are also mainly buried in the grounds of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarim" title="Tarim"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Tarim</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and thus up to this day, their shrines form part of the necessary destinations for visitors to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Hadramaut</span></a>. Today, two popular institutions for the study of Islam are<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rubaat&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Rubaat (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Rubaat</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Tarim and the relatively new<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar_al-Mustafa" title="Dar al-Mustafa"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Dar al-Mustafa</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, the latter under the leadership of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habib_Umar_bin_Hafiz" title="Habib Umar bin Hafiz"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Habib Umar bin Hafi</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></u></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chishti" title="Chishti"><span style="color: #0645ad;"><b>Chishti</b></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Origin And Foundation...</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Chishtī Order<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>:<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">چشتی</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">-<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Čištī) is a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">Sufi order</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>within the mystic branches of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>which was founded in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisht" title="Chisht">Chisht</a>, a small town near<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, Afghanistan about 930 CE. The Chishti Order is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The doctrine of the Chishti Order is based on<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wal%C4%81ya&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Walāya (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">walāya</span></a>, which is a fundamental notion of Islamic social, political and spiritual life. The Chishti’s were first exposed to this idea of walāya, from Sufi ideas, but developed two different categories of it: walāya of divine lordship and the walāya of divine love <o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The order was founded by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Ishaq_Shami" title="Abu Ishaq Shami">Abu Ishaq Shami</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(“the Syrian”) who introduced the ideas of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day western<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>. Before returning to Syria, where he is now buried next to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Arabi" title="Ibn Arabi">Ibn Arabi</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>at<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabal_Qasioun" title="Jabal Qasioun">Jabal Qasioun</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the local emir,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abu_Ahmad_Abdal&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Abu Ahmad Abdal (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Abu Ahmad Abdal</span></a>.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad’s descendants, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Chishtiya<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order. <o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Chishti master<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inayat_Khan" title="Inayat Khan">Inayat Khan</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(1882–1927) was the first to bring the Sufi path to the West, arriving in America in 1910 and later settling near Paris, France. His approach exemplified the tolerance and openness of the Chishti Order, following a custom began by Moinuddin Chishti of initiating and training disciples regardless of religious affiliation and which continued through Nizamuddin Auliya and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Kalim_Allah_Jahanabadi" title="Shah Kalim Allah Jahanabadi">Shah Kalim Allah Jahanabadi</a>. Chishti master<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mido_Chishty&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Mido Chishty (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Mido Chishty</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>has taken teachings of the order to develop<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FUZN&action=edit&redlink=1" title="FUZN (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">FUZN</span></a>. This has proven popular in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California" title="California">California</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u> </u></b></span></span><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Key ideas…</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></i></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Chishti saints had two hallmarks which differentiate them from other Sufi saints. The first was their ethical relations to the institutional powers. This meant voluntarily keeping a distance from the ruler or the government mechanism. It didn't matter if the ruler was a patron or a disciple: he was always kept at bay since it was felt that mixing with the ruler will corrupt the soul by indulging it in worldly matters. In his last discourse to disciples, Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti said:<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; text-align: justify; width: 0px;"><tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 7.5pt 7.5pt 7.5pt 7.5pt; width: 15.0pt;" valign="top" width="20"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #b2b7f2; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">“<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 3.0pt 7.5pt 3.0pt 7.5pt;" valign="top"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Never seek any help, charity, or favors from anybody except God. Never go the court of kings, but never refuse to bless and help the needy and the poor, the widow, and the orphan, if they come to your door. <o:p></o:p></span></div></td> <td style="padding: 7.5pt 7.5pt 7.5pt 7.5pt; width: 15.0pt;" valign="bottom" width="20"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="color: #b2b7f2; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">”<o:p></o:p></span></div></td> </tr></tbody></table><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The second distinctive dimension was related to the religious practice of the Chishtis. It was </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proactive" title="Proactive"><span style="text-decoration: none;">proactive</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> rather than passive; a ceaseless search for the divine other. In this respect the Chishtis followed a particular ritual more zealously then any other brotherhood. This was the practice of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sama_(Sufism)" title="Sama (Sufism)"><span style="text-decoration: none;">sama</span></a>, evoking the divine presence through song or listening to music. The genius of the Chishti saints was that they accommodated the practice of sema with the full range of Muslim obligation<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Practices</u></b></span></i></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In order to connect with Allah on a personal and emotional level, the Chishtis were known for 5 basic practices.<sup><o:p></o:p></sup></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1. Ḏh̲ikr-i Ḏj̲ahr, reciting the names of Allāh loudly, sitting in the prescribed posture at prescribed times<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2.Ḏh̲ikr-i Ḵh̲afī, reciting the names of Allāh silently<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3.Pās-i Anfās, regulating the breath<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4.Murā-ḳāba, absorption in mystic contemplation<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">5.Čilla, forty days of spiritual confinement in a lonely corner or cell for prayer and contemplation<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></i></span><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Spiritual lineage</span></i></span></u></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">'Alī ibn Abī Ṭālib<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri" title="Hasan al-Basri">Al-Ḥasan al-Baṣrī</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul_Waahid_Bin_Zaid" title="Abdul Waahid Bin Zaid">'Abdul Wāḥid Bin Zaid Abul Faḍl</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fudhail_Bin_Iyadh" title="Fudhail Bin Iyadh">Fuḍayll ibn 'Iyāḍ Bin Mas'ūd Bin Bishr al-Tamīmī</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Bin_Adham" title="Ibrahim Bin Adham">Ibrāhīm bin Adham</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huzaifah_Al-Mar%27ashi" title="Huzaifah Al-Mar'ashi">Ḥudhayfah al-Mar'ash</a><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>3::Naqshbandi…</u></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandi</span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(an-Naqshbandiyyah, Nakşibendi, Naksbendi, Naksbandi) is one of the major<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">spiritual orders (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">tariqa</span></a>) of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam" title="Islam"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Islam</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. It is considered to be a "Potent" order.</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi#cite_note-InternationalEncyclopaedia-0"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[1]</span></sup></a><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Naqshbandi order is over 1,300 years old, and is active today. It is the only Sufi order that claims to trace its direct spiritual lineage/chain (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silsilah" title="Silsilah"><i><span style="color: #0645ad;">silsilah</span></i></a>) to the Islamic prophet<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Muhammad</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, through<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr" title="Abu Bakr"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Abu Bakr</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, the first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliph" title="Caliph"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">caliph</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">and Muhammad's companion. This lineage also indirectly connects to<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali" title="Ali"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ali</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<sup><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi#cite_note-1"><span style="color: #0645ad;">[2]</span></a></sup><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Muhammad's cousin, son-in-law and the Fourth Caliph, via<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jafar_as-Sadiq" title="Jafar as-Sadiq"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jafar as-Sadiq</span></a>. In contrast, most other Sufi orders (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turuq" title="Turuq"><span style="color: #0645ad;">turuq</span></a>) trace their lineage through<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali" title="Ali"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ali</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">.</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi#cite_note-SufisSaintsBodies-2"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[3]</span></sup></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi#cite_note-SupremeCouncil-3"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[4]</span></sup></a><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">It is considered that the transmission of spiritual lineage or silsilah, is directly from one Sheikh to another, at or after the time of death or burial. It is not tied to a country, family or political appointment, but is a direct heart to heart transmission. It is also considered that the appointed Sheikh will be in some communication with past Sheikhs. At any one time, there will of course be many other Sheikhs, who will all naturally owe their<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay%27ah" title="Bay'ah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">bay'ah</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>"spiritual allegiance" to the current master of the silsilah.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Naqshbandi order owes many insights to Abu Ya'qub Yusuf al-Hamadani and Abd al-Khaliq al-Ghujdawani, who is regarded as the organizer of the practices and is responsible for placing stress upon the purely mental<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dhikr.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>It was later associated with<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baha-ud-Din_Naqshband_Bukhari" title="Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Muhammad Baha ad-din an-Naqshabandi</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, hence the name of the order. Some interpret the name translation as "the engravers (of the heart)", "related to the image-maker", "pattern maker", "image maker", "reformer of patterns", "way of the chain" and "golden chain."<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The name has changed over the years. Originally called "as-Siddiqiyya", around the times of Bayazid al-Bistami to Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani it was called at-Tayfuriyya, and from the times of 'Abdul Khaliq al-Ghujdawani to Shah Naqshband it was called the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwajagan" title="Khwajagan"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Khwajagan</span></a>" or "Hodja". From the time of Shah Naqshband it has been called Naqshbandiyya.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Criteria of a Sufi Naqshbandi Sheikh</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The following would always apply to genuine Sufi Naqshbandi teachers or Sheikhs:<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">They comply with</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sharia</span></a>. They must be a</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalim" title="Aalim"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Aalim</span></a>. There is no sufism without</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilm_(Arabic)" title="Ilm (Arabic)"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Ilm</span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">They regularly acknowledge the silsilah to which they give allegiance.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">They openly and regularly defer to the current leader of the silsilah.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bay'ah is given to the leader of the silsilah, not the local teacher or Sheikh.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">They accept interaction with other murids of the order.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">They don't accept</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ijazah</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">from dead persons, or in dreams, or through special spiritual experience (rawhani)<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">They accept only written</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">ijazah</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">in live, in presence of witnesses.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Different Golden Chains…</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">There are different golden chains in Naqshbandi which are as follow…<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Owaisiah Golden Chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandiyyah al-Mujaddidi Golden Chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandia Mujaddadia Sirajia Golden Chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandi Mujadadi Ghafori Golden chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandi Mujadadi Saifi Golden chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandi Mujadadi Tahiri Golden chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandi Mujadadi Makaan Shareefi Golden Chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandia Qasimiya Golden Chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandi-Haqqani Golden Chain</span></b></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Naqshbandia Mujaddidia Khalidia Mahmudia Golden Chain in</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></b></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan"><b><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Dagestan</span></b></a><span class="mw-headline"><b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Practices…</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b>11 principal teachings</b></span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The first eight were formulated by Ghujdawani, and the last three were added by Baha ad- din.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naqshbandi#cite_note-Trmingham-4"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[5]</span></sup></a><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Remembrance (Yad kard): Always orally and mentally repeating the dhikr.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Restraint (Baz gasht): Engaging in the heart repetition of the phrase "Al-kalimat at-tayyiba."<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Watchfulness (Nigah dasht): Being conscientious over wandering thoughts while repeating the phrase "Al-kalimat at-tayyiba."<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Recollection (Yad dasht): Concentration upon the Divine presence in a condition of dhawq, foretaste, intuitive anticipation or perceptiveness, not using external aids.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Awareness while breathing (Hosh dar dam): Controlling one's breathing by not exhaling or inhaling in the forgetfullness of the Divine.</span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Journeying in one's homeland (Safar dar watan): An internal journey that moves the person from having blameworthy to praiseworthy properties. This is also referred to as the vision or revelation of the hidden side of the shahada.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Watching one's step (Nazar bar qadam): Do not be distracted from purpose of the ultimate journey.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Solitude in a crowd (Khalwat dar anjuman): Although journey is outwardly in this world, it is inwardly with God.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Temporal pause (Wuquf-I zamani): Keeping account of how one spends his or her time. If time is spent rightfully give thanks and time is spent incorrectly ask for forgiveness.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Numerical pause (Wuquf-I adadi): Checking that the heart-dhikr has been repeated the requisite number of times, taking into account one's wandering thoughts.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Heart pause (Wuquf-I qalbi): Forming a mental picture of one's heart with the name of God engraved to emphasize that the heart has no consciousness or goal other than God.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4):</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></u></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%27matull%C4%81h%C4%AB" title="Ni'matullāhī"><span style="color: #0645ad;"><b>Nimatullahi</b></span></a>.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Origin.</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ni'matullāhī</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">or</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ne'matollāhī</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Persian</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">:</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">نعمتاللهی</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">) (also spelled as "Nimatollahi", "Nematollahi" or "Ni'matallahi) is a</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">order (or</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">tariqa</span></a></span></i><span style="background-color: white;">) originating in Iran. According to Moojan Momen, the number of Ni'matullāhī in Iran in 1980 was estimated to be between 50,000 and 350,000.</span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%27matull%C4%81h%C4%AB#cite_note-0"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[1]</span></sup></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">Following the emigration of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Javad_Nurbakhsh" title="Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">and other</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dervishes" title="Dervishes"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">dervishes</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">after the 1979</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Iranian Revolution</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">, the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">tariqa</span></a></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">has attracted numerous followers outside</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran" title="Iran"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Iran</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">, mostly in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe" title="Europe"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Europe</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">,</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">West Africa</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America" title="North America"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">North America</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">, although the first khaniqa outside of Iran was formed in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco" title="San Francisco"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">San Francisco</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">, California, United States in 1975, a few years before the revolution in Iran.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>History…</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The order is named after its 14th century CE founder</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shah_Nimatullah" title="Shah Nimatullah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shah Nimatullah</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">(Nur ad-Din Ni'matullah</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wali" title="Wali"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Wali</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white;">), who settled in and is buried in</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahan" title="Mahan"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Mahan</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerman_Province" title="Kerman Province"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Kerman Province</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, Iran, where his tomb is still an important pilgrimage site. Shah Ni'matallahi was a disciple of the</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadiri" title="Qadiri"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Qadiri</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">sufi 'Abdallah Yafi'i: a chain of succession of masters (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silsilah" title="Silsilah"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">silsilah</span></a>) has been claimed that extends back to</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruf_Karkhi" title="Maruf Karkhi"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Maruf Karkhi</span></a>.<sup>[</sup></span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">citation needed</span></sup></a></span><sup><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">]</span></sup><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Originally a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni" title="Sunni"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Sunni</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">order, the Ni'matullahi became</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shia" title="Shia"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Shia</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">in the 16th century C.E. with the</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">general conversion of Iran</span></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. The order has four main sub-orders;<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Khaniqahi Ni'matullahi or Dhu'r-riyasateyn (Munis 'Ali Shah) Ni'matullahiya, known in the West due to its former shaykh, Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Safialishahi, named after Sheikh Safi 'Ali Shah Isfahani (d. 1316AH/1899C.E.).<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Khanekhah Maleknia Naseralishah, named after its Sheikh Pir Malikniya, known as Nasir Ali Shah (d.1998 C.E.).<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Gonabadi or Bonyad Erfan Gonabadi, centered in Iran in the city of Gonabad, whose primary 20th century shaykh was Sultan Husayn Tabandah and the present qotb being Dr.Nur Ali Tabandah "Majzoub Ali Shah" residing in Tehran.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal"><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 32px;"><br /></span></div><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><br /><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The last two, like many</span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadiri" title="Qadiri"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">Qadiri</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">orders, emphasise a way founded upon strict observance of</span> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">sharia</span></a></span> <span style="background-color: white;">law.</span></span><span style="background-color: transparent; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%27matull%C4%81h%C4%AB#cite_note-1"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[2]</span></sup></a></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Dr. Javad Nurbakhsh took the lead of the Ni'matullahi Order in 1953 upon the death of his predecessor</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Munis_%27Ali_Shad_Dhu_al-Riyastain&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Munis 'Ali Shad Dhu al-Riyastain (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000; text-decoration: none;">Munis 'Ali Shad Dhu al-Riyastain</span></a>. Dr.Nurbakhsh undertook a major expansion of the order in Iran. In the 1970s visitiors from the</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States"><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">United States</span></a></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="background-color: white;">joined the order while in Iran. In 1974 Dr. Nurbakhsh went to the United States and decided that there was a need to establish regular khaniqas there. In 1979 Dr.Nurbakhsh left Iran to flee the repressive government that did not appreciate alternate religious authorities. He lived in the United States until he moved to England in 1983. By the early 1990s there were nine Ni'matullahi khaniqas in the United States. The ones in the East Coast such as Boston, New York and Washington were almost completely attended by Americans, while the ones in California were about half American and half Iranian, with members coming from diverse religious backgrounds, not restricted to Shi'i Islam.</span> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%27matull%C4%81h%C4%AB#cite_note-2"><sup><span style="color: #0645ad; text-decoration: none;">[3]</span></sup></a></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Today, the Order has expanded to places such as Mexico, Russia, Western Africa, and Spain.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Activities..</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The numerous publications of the order include the bi-annual<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SUFI_Journal&action=edit&redlink=1" title="SUFI Journal (page does not exist)"><span style="background-color: white; color: #ba0000;">SUFI Journal</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. The Khaniqahi Nimatullahi also publish, in Persian, English and other languages, Dr. Nurbakhsh's seven-volume treatment of the states and stations the Sufi path, his twelve-volume explanation of the meanings of Sufi mystical terminology and his many annotated biographies of the great historic masters of the path. Social activities of the present-day order include the establishment of clinics and medical centers in impoverished regions of West Africa, where the order has attracted numerous adherents.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Famous sufis…</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1.Shah Naimatullah<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> 2.</span></span><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mir Seyed Ali Hamedani<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3. Khajeh Isthaq Khatlani<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4. Pir Jamal-e-din Ardestani<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">5. Shah Qasem Anwar<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">6. Sheikh Sadr-e-din Ardebili<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">7. Khajeh Baha-e-din Naqshbandi<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">8. Khajeh Mohammad Parsa<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Mevlevi Order…</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mevlevi Order</span></b></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">, or the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mevlevilik</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">or</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mevleviye</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(</span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Persian</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">:</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">مولويه</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">-</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Molavīyeh</span></i></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">) are a</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">order founded in</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konya" title="Konya"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Konya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">(in present-day</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Turkey</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">) by the followers of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumi" title="Rumi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Balkhi-Rumi</span></a>, a 13th century</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_people" title="Persian people"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Persian</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet" title="Poet"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">poet</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">, Islamic</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurist" title="Jurist"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">jurist</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">, and</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theologian" title="Theologian"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">theologian</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">. They are also known as the</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><b><span style="background-color: white;">Whirling Dervishes</span></b></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">due to their famous practice of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_whirling" title="Sufi whirling"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">whirling</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">as a form of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr"><span style="color: #0645ad;">dhikr</span></a></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">(remembrance of</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God" title="God"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">God</span></a><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">).</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Dervish</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">is a common term for an initiate of the Sufi path; the whirling is part of the formal</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sama_(Sufism)" title="Sama (Sufism)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sama</span></a></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="background-color: white;">ceremony and the participants are properly known as</span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="background-color: white;">semazen</span></i><span style="background-color: white;">-s<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><u><b>Principles</b></u></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Mawlawi order was founded in 1273 by Rumi's followers after his death, particularly by his successor Hüsamettin Çelebi who decided to build a mausoleum for Mawlâna, and then Mawlâna's son,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baha_al-Din_Muhammad-i_Walad&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad (page does not exist)"><span style="color: #ba0000;">Baha al-Din Muhammad-i Walad</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Çelebi,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Chelebi, meaning "fully initiated"). He was an accomplished Sufi mystic with great organizing talents. His personal efforts were continued by his successor Ulu Arif Çelebi.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Mawlawi believe in performing their<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr"><span style="color: #0645ad;">dhikr</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in the form of a "dance" and musical ceremony known as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sama_(Sufism)" title="Sama (Sufism)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sama</span></a>, which involves the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_whirling" title="Sufi whirling"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">whirling</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, from which the order acquired its nickname. The Sema represents a mystical journey of man's spiritual ascent through mind and love to the "Perfect". Turning towards the truth, the follower grows through love, deserts his ego, finds the truth, and arrives at the "Perfect". He then returns from this spiritual journey as a man who has reached maturity and a greater perfection, able to love and to be of service to the whole of creation.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Origin of Sama</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The origin of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sama_(Sufism)" title="Sama (Sufism)"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Sama</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is credited to Rumi, Sufi master and in whose name the Mevlevi Order was founded. The story of the creation of this unique form of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr"><span style="color: #0645ad;">dhikr</span></a>tells that Rumi was walking through the town marketplace one day, when he heard the rhythmic hammering of the goldbeaters. It is believed that Rumi heard the dhikr, "la elaha ella'llah" in Arabic "لا اله الا الله", or in English, "There is none worthy of worship but Allah(God)", spoken by the apprentices beating the gold, and was so filled with happiness that he stretched out both of his arms and started spinning in a circle. With that, the practice of Sama and the dervishes of the Mevlevi Order were born.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>History</u></b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Mevlevi became a well-established<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">order in the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ottoman Empire</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">by realizing a blood relationship with the Ottoman sultans when Devlet Hatun, a descendant of Sultan Veled married the sultan<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayezid_I" title="Bayezid I"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Bayezid I</span></a>. Their son<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_I" title="Mehmed I"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Mehmed I</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Çelebi became the next sultan, endowing the order, as did his successors, with many gifts.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Many of the members of the order served in various official positions of the Caliphate. The centre for the Mawlawi order was in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konya" title="Konya"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Konya</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, where their 13th century guiding spirit, Mewlana (Jelaleddin al-Rumi) is buried. There is also a Mevlevi monastery or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dergah" title="Dergah"><i><span style="color: #0645ad;">dergah</span></i></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Istanbul</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, near the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galata_Tower" title="Galata Tower"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Galata Tower</span></a>, where the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>sama<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(whirling ceremony) is performed and accessible to the public.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">During the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ottoman Empire</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">era, the Mevlevi order produced a number of famous poets and musicians such as</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheikh_Ghalib&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Sheikh Ghalib (page does not exist)"><span style="background-color: white; color: #ba0000;">Sheikh Ghalib</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ismail_Ankaravi&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Ismail Ankaravi (page does not exist)"><span style="background-color: white; color: #ba0000;">Ismail Ankaravi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">(both buried at the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galata" title="Galata"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Galata</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Mevlevi-Hane) and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abdullah_Sari&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Abdullah Sari (page does not exist)"><span style="background-color: white; color: #ba0000;">Abdullah Sari</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. Vocal and instrumental music, especially the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ney" title="Ney"><span style="color: #0645ad;">ney</span></a>, plays an important role in the Mevlevi ceremony and famous composers such as<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammamizade_%C4%B0smail_Dede_Efendi" title="Hammamizade İsmail Dede Efendi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Dede Efendi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>wrote music for the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>ayin<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(cycle of Mevlevi ceremonial music). The ayin text is normally a selection from the poetry of Mevlana. If one buys a CD of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Turkey" title="Music of Turkey"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Turkish</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">music, chances are it will be a Mevlevi ayin.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">During the Ottoman period, the Mevlevi order spread into the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Balkans</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Syria</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Lebanon</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Egypt</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">(and is still practiced in both countries where they are known as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Mewlewi Order). The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Bosnian</span></a>writer<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C5%A1a_Selimovi%C4%87" title="Meša Selimović"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Meša Selimović</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>wrote the book "The Dervish and Death" about a Mevlevi<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>dergah<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarajevo" title="Sarajevo"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sarajevo</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Mevlevi Order has some similarities to other Dervish orders such as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qadiri" title="Qadiri"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Qadiri</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(founded in 1165), the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rifa%27i" title="Rifa'i"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Rifa'i</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(founded in 1182), and the Kalenderis.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>The Mevlevi Regiment</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">During<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">World War I</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, Mevlevi Regiment served in Syria and Palestine under the command of 4th Army. A battalion of some 800 dervishes was formed December 1914 in Konya (the Mucahidin-i Mevleviyye) and was sent to Damascus. Another battalion of regular recruits was added at the end of August 1916, and together they formed the Mevlevi Regiment. This unit did not fight until the end of the Palestine campaign and was disbanded at the end of September 1918.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Mustafa Kemal met with members of the Mevlevi Order in 1923 before its institutional expression became illegal.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="color: #0645ad;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadhili" title="Shadhili">Shadhliyya</a></span>…</b><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Origin and foundation</u></b><span style="background-color: white;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Shadhili Tariqa<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>is a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi" title="Sufi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sufi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">order of Sunni Islam founded by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abul_Hasan_al-Shadhili" title="Abul Hasan al-Shadhili"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Abul Hasan Ali ash-Shadhili</span></a>. Followers (Arabic<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murid" title="Murid"><i><span style="color: #0645ad;">murids</span></i></a>, "seekers") of the Shadhiliya are known as Shadhilis.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">It has historically been of importance and influence in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">North Africa</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Egypt</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">with many contributions to Islamic literature. Among the figures most known for their literary and intellectual contributions are<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_%27Ata_Allah" title="Ibn 'Ata Allah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Ibn 'Ata Allah</span></a>, author of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Hikam, and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_Zarruq" title="Ahmad Zarruq"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ahmad Zarruq</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, author of numerous commentaries and works, and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Ajiba" title="Ahmad ibn Ajiba"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ahmad ibn Ajiba</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">who also wrote numerous commentaries and works. In poetry expressing love of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Muhammad</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, there have been the notable contributions of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Jazuli" title="Muhammad al-Jazuli"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Muhammad al-Jazuli</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, author of the "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dala%27il_al-Khayrat" title="Dala'il al-Khayrat"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Dala'il al-Khayrat</span></a>", and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busiri" title="Busiri"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Busiri</span></a>, author of the famous poem, the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qa%E1%B9%A3%C4%ABda_al-Burda" title="Qaṣīda al-Burda"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Qaṣīda al-Burda</span></a>. Many of the head lecturers of<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">al-Azhar University</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Cairo</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">have also been followers of this tariqa.</span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Of the various branches of the Shadhili tariqa are the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://www.shazuli.com/"><span style="color: #3366bb;">Fassiyatush</span></a>, found largely in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">India</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sri Lanka</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Pakistan</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darqawi" title="Darqawi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Darqawi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>branch is found mostly in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Morocco</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">and the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Alawi" title="Ahmad al-Alawi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Alawiyya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>(no connection to the Turkish or Syrian<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alawi" title="Alawi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Alawi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>or<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alevi" title="Alevi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Alevi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>groups) which originated in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Algeria</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">is now found the world over, particularly in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Syria</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Jordan</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France" title="France"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">France</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">and among many English-speaking communities. British scholar,<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Martin Lings</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>wrote an extensive biography of the founder of this branch,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmad_al-Alawi" title="Ahmad al-Alawi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ahmad al-Alawi</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, entitled 'A Sufi Saint of the 20th century' <o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Swedish impressionist painter and Sufi scholar<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Agu%C3%A9li" title="Ivan Aguéli"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Ivan Aguéli</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">(1869–1917) was the first official Moqaddam (representative) of the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadhiliyya" title="Shadhiliyya"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Shadhiliyya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>in Western Europe. Aguéli initiated<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">René Guénon</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">(1886–1951) into the Shadhili tariqa.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>Guénon went on to write a number of influential books on tradition and modernit<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Branches</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Shadhiliyya has nearly 72 branches across the globe. A few prominent branches are listed below.<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Fassiyya</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Fassiyatush shadhili sufi order was established by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam_Fassi" title="Imam Fassi"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Qutbul Ujud Ghouthuz Zamaaninaa Ash Sheikh Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Mas'ood bin Abdur Rahman Al Makki Al Magribi Al Fassi Ash Shadhili (Imam Fassi)</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>who was a Moroccan by origin and born in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makkah" title="Makkah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Makkah</span></a>.</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadhili#cite_note-fassiyatush_shadhiliyya_website-0"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[1]</span></sup></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya is widely practised in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">India</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sri Lanka</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Pakistan</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Mauritius</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">and<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Indonesia</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Fassi_family" title="Al-Fassi family"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">descendants</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">of</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imam_Fassi" title="Imam Fassi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Imam Fassi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">who are Sheikhs of Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya who live in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makkah" title="Makkah"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Makkah</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Jeddah</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">visit to these countries frequently to train Ikhwan.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="background-color: white;"><br /></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Darqawiyya</span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darqawiyya" title="Darqawiyya"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Darqawiyya</span></a>, a Moroccan branch of the Shadhili order, was founded in the late 18th century CE by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Arabi_al-Darqawi" title="Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. Selections from the Letters of Shaykh<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_al-Arabi_al-Darqawi" title="Muhammad al-Arabi al-Darqawi"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">al-Darqawi</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">have been translated by the Shadhili initiate Titus Burckhardt, and also by the scholar Aisha Bewley.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>One of the first<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa"><span style="color: #0645ad;">tariqas</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>to be established in the West was the 'Alawiya branch of the Darqawiyya,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>which was named after Shaykh Ahmad ibn Mustafa al-'Alawi al-Mustaghanimi, popularly known as Shaykh al-Alawi. "A significant book about him, written by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Lings" title="Martin Lings"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Martin Lings</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, is<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://www.ikitab.com/index.php3?menu=describe&table=Book&cat=Books&id=3298"><i><span style="background-color: white; color: #3366bb;">A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth Century</span></i></a><span style="background-color: white;">."</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadhili#cite_note-godlas-1"><sup><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">[2]</span></sup></a></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></span></u></b></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Maryamiyya</span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Maryamiyya branch of the Shadhiliyya Order was founded by Shaykh 'Isa Nur al-Din Ahmad or Frithjof Schuon (1907–1998), a European disciple of Shaykh Ahmad al-'Alawi, who established the Order in Europe and North America.<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span> Some of Schuon's most eminent students include,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titus_Burckhardt" title="Titus Burckhardt"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Titus Burckhardt</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">(1908–1984) and Martin Lings (1909–2005), author of the aforementioned text,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth Century<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and the universally acclaimed biography of the Prophet,Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></i></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Attasiyah</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The 'Attasiyah Order is a branch of the 'Alawi Order. It is centered in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Yemen</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">but also has centers in<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Pakistan</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">,<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India" title="India"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">India</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">, and</span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Myanmar</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">. The 'Alawiya order in Yemen has recently been studied by the anthropologist David Buchman. In his article "The Underground Friends of God and Their Adversaries: A Case Study and Survey of Sufism in Contemporary Yemen", Professor Buchman summarizes the results of his six month period of fieldwork in Yemen. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Another figure is "<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaykh_Abdalqadir_al-Murabit" title="Shaykh Abdalqadir al-Murabit"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Shaykh Abdalqadir al-Murabit</span></a>, a Scottish convert to Islam, whose lineage is Shadhili-Darqawi. Currently his order is known as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murabitun" title="Murabitun"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Murabitun</span></a>. At other times his order has been known as the<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darqawiyya" title="Darqawiyya"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Darqawiyya</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>and Habibiya. One of the first books that Shaykh Abdalqadir wrote was<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>The Book of Strangers, which he authored under the name Ian Dallas. For a brief anecdote of Shaykh Abdalqadir in the early 1970s<o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Another contemporary order deriving, in part, from Shaykh Abdalqadir al-Murabit is the al-Haydariyah al-Shadhiliyah, headed by<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadhlalla_Haeri" title="Fadhlalla Haeri"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Shaykh Fadhlalla Haeri</span></a>. Of Shi'ite descent, Shaykh Fadhlalla teaches within neither a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shi%27i" title="Shi'i"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Shi'i</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>nor a<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunni" title="Sunni"><span style="background-color: white; color: #0645ad;">Sunni</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="background-color: white;"> </span></span><span style="background-color: white;">framework.<sup> <o:p></o:p></sup></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><b><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></i></b></span></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span class="mw-headline"><i><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u>Badawiyya</u></b></span></i></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Another branch of the Shadhilia which has groups in Egypt, Indonesia, Turkey and America is the Shadhilia-Batawia founded by Sheikh Ibrahim al-Batawi, for many years professor at al-Azhar. He was a confrere of Sheikh Abdu-l-Halim Mahmud, Shaikh al-Azhar, who was very influential in the revival of Sufism in Egypt. Sheikh Ibrahim’s student, Sheikh Abdullah<span class="apple-converted-space"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nooruddeen_Durkee" title="Nooruddeen Durkee"><span style="color: #0645ad;">Nooruddeen Durkee</span></a><span class="apple-converted-space"> </span>has established the Shadhdhuliyyah-Baddawia order in the US. Sheikh Nooruddeen has translated and transliterated the Qur'an and has compiled two definitive books on the Shadhdhuliyyiah,</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><a href="http://greenmountainschool.org/tasawwuf.htm"><span style="background-color: white; color: #3366bb;">Orisons and Origins</span></a><span style="background-color: white;">.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><br /></div></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><div style="text-align: justify;"><b><u><span style="color: red;">Wriiten By: Faizan Khan</span></u></b></div></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-7478959370738880892012-05-13T03:01:00.000-07:002012-05-13T03:01:01.973-07:00Kulliyat E Ghani - Ghani Khan - PDF Download<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><img src="http://www.ghanikhan.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/kulliyat-e-ghani_0002.jpg" /><br />
<b><span style="color: red;"><u>Book Name:</u></span> Kulliyat e Ghani</b><br />
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Author:</span></u> Ghani Khan</b><br />
<b><u><span style="color: red;">Genre:</span></u> Poetry</b><br />
<b><u><span style="color: red;">File Type:</span></u> PDF</b><br />
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</b></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-11024736770202562112012-05-05T19:32:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Introduction Of Slaves in Latin America<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Slavery and other forms of forced labor is an issue that is the subject of scorn and despise in today’s modern world. However the irony lies in the fact that the nations, mostly colonizers, who criticize it the most today themselves at some point in time used this institution to their advantage when they conquered and ruled foreign lands. The story of Latin America is not very different. The Spaniards on their arrival not only brought African slaves along with them but also developed different forms of forced labor for the natives such as encomiendas, yana etc. There were few arguments in favor of slave trade such as the excuse to spread the message of the Church and to evangelize as many people as possible. However a close look at the annals of colonial history shows us that economic gains were the driving force behind the acts of the colonizers. The ambitious cult of the Spaniards which made them take the long and hazardous journey to the New World was the driving force behind bringing African slaves and engaging natives into forced labor. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> In the wake of Spanish conquests in Peru and New Spain the native societies experienced immense structural, economic and social changes. The Spaniards believed in Aristotle’s doctrine of natural slavery, whereby societies that were rational and reasonable and had accepted the true faith i.e. Christianity were meant to be Masters whereas those who were governed by brutality, passion and infidelity were eternally slaves. This implied that the Spaniards considered the natives as providers of free labor for them. One of the most major impacts of the arrival of the Spanish was the fall of the native Indian population. Although very accurate accounts are not available today yet records suggest that the native population experienced a decline of 85% in a century after they arrived. One of the major reasons for this was that the Spanish brought diseases such as smallpox, mumps, measles etc along with them from Europe. The spread of these alien diseases meant that the natives who did not have any immunity against them easily fell victim. Usually it would take up three or four generations to build up resistance against such diseases. Moreover it has been suggested that the Spaniards used violence and brutality which lead to poor health conditions and malnourishment. The native’s crops were also eaten up by the animals of the Spaniards which meant that they were left with limited supplies of food. Thereafter many natives accepting the Spanish domination as their land’s fate or divine will, began committing suicides and infanticides etc. Such decline in native population was on the other hand accompanied by an increasing Spanish population as more and more professionals and artisans from Spain poured in. The decreasing native population suggested a dearth of labor for the Spaniards as many of them possessed very economically important skills. This situation brought to the forefront the African slaves. The blacks travelled to Latin America along with their Spanish masters. They included men and women. Demographically, most of the Spaniards were young men who were accompanied by few Spanish women; therefore black women were also brought to the newly conquered territory. Curiously the Spaniards could also consider transferring Spanish masses to the Indies to use as labor. However, during this time many cities of the Spanish empire were beginning to grow and thrive. Besides this the agriculture sector was operating now on free wage labor basis. Finally, the fact that the military force was being developed provided another niche to the Spanish masses. Therefore, African slaves seemed a perfect choice given these circumstances. Added to this black labor was completely mobile and they were kinless which meant they could be transported anywhere and made to work. In case of the natives it was very hard to make them shift. Moreover, there remained a threat of rebellion as they were still living in their native land and developed community. However in cases where cruelty reached enormous heights there were instances of revolt from the blacks even as in case of the “Maroons” who ran away and settled and developed their own organized community. The Blacks soon surfaced in colonial society. Inter marrying took place between blacks, Indians and Spanish leading to mixed breeds such as mulattoes and zambos.</span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> On finding rich reserves of precious metals in the Indies, the Spaniards required even more labor for extraction. It is true to a great extent that some form of manual labor existed even before the arrival of the Spanish. The pre-existing economic structure appears to be similar to the theory of modern day socialism. The government provided whatever its subjects needed and the nobility was responsible for the administration. People did not have freedom of choice and there was no concept of leisure time but it seems that these were not important concepts for the natives of the time. There were also artisans and craftsmen of an itinerant nature. The Spaniards simply added a monetary concept to this already existing concept of communal cooperation.( Weidner, Forced Labor In Colonial Peru).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Sugar plantations were a major part of agriculture at that time. Sugarcane, not being an indigenous crop of the Americas, was first brought by Christopher Columbus from Europe. Harvesting the sugarcane crop tends to be an arduous and irksome job and initially the natives were employed for this job. However, a large part of them were already severely hit by European diseases. Some of them ran away from such harsh labor. Thereafter the Crown realized that they had to rely on African slaves. A healthy, adult slave was expected to be able to plow, plant, and harvest five acres of sugar. Sugar planting was back-breaking work. Lines of slaves, men, women and children, moved across the fields, row by row, hand-planting thousands of seed-cane stems. Between 5,000 and 8,000 pieces had to be planted to produce one acre of sugar cane. Workdays in the fields typically lasted from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. with a noon-time break of perhaps two hours. Not only was the nature of the work exhausting but also the working conditions were quite barbaric. Supervisors would even whip the slaves during the work in order to improve their performance or speed. After harvesting the process of boiling took place to convert the cane into crystal form. This was even worse as many slaves received severe burns or suffered from swollen body parts due to the intense heat. Sometimes work shifts would last 18 hours and not only this but threats and force were used to compel them to continue the labor. This pattern of sugar plantations initially existed in Brazil and then was later followed by other Latin as well as European countries. With more time sugar became a very important source of earning for the Crown. In British and French colonies such as Jamaica and Saint Domingue it became the most important export accounting for two thirds of the total exports.(West, Sugar and Slavery).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> One of the initial measures taken by the Spaniards with regard to American labor was the creation of “encomiendas”. Most of the Spanish conquerors were assigned a group of natives who were to provide labor for them. In return their Spanish Masters were to provide protection and sustenance and most importantly to evangelize them. However, on close scrutiny it appears that encomiendas actually reduced the Crown’s revenue. This occurred because the Spanish were not allowed to move the native encomiendas to other geographical locations which would yield better returns such as the silver mines in Mexico and Peru. Moreover, unlike slaves, they could not be traded or rented to other Spaniards which again meant that their cost per person was high for the Masters. Nevertheless, the Spanish continued the use of native labor. The Crown had strong reasons to continue doing this. Firstly, it had to provide some sort of incentive to the conquistadors as they would have to face alien conditions in the Indies. For this purpose the Crown struck a bargain with them. The leaders of the conquests or “caudillos” were specified a return and an area of authority. In return for this, the “caudillos” had to raise capital and a labor force for the Crown. Labor was one of the abundant resources available in the Indies and so it was in the best interest of the Spanish to exploit. The Church also wanted the Americans to be free people and not to be inflicted with harsh labor; however, in the initial years after the conquest they had to adopt a certain system of extracting native labor otherwise they would have forgone large amounts of wealth. Another major reason why the Crown preferred encomiendas over slavery was because of inheritance restrictions on them which meant that encomenderos could not retain the encomiendas for generations. Furthermore, if the Crown wanted it could confiscate encomiendas especially in case of signs of rebellion from the conquistadores. The encomiendas also processed a right not to be dislocated unlike slaves. The Church felt that dislocation of natives could lead to their depopulation as they would be exposed to different climatic conditions. The institution of encomiendas could have proved economically less productive as compared to slavery. However, the Church had to cater to security considerations at the time.(Yeager, Encomienda or Slavery).<o:p></o:p></span></div><br /><div style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Soon the institution of encomienda began to be abused in several ways by the nobles and so the Crown passed the laws of 1542, banning encomiendas. It was replaced by “repartimientos” or “mita”. This made colonial administrators in charge of the natives. Under this system work requirements stipulated that all able-bodied men between the ages of 16 and 60 work 2 weeks per year and that no more than 5% of a community’s male population be absent at one time.(Kent, Latin America: Region and People). </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The type of labor that could be extracted was totally on the administrator’s discretion. Mostly work included working in mines, on agricultural land and also on public works. The institution of mita was not very much the brainchild of the colonizers; rather it existed in some form during the Aztec and Inca empires as well.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> More than 80% of the population was involved in agriculture and ranching and mining being the foremost activity. Until the 18<sup>th</sup> century the policy of the Crown was to exchange precious metals extracted from the Indies for manufactured goods from Europe. This required them to engage maximum natives in labor. The major silver mines opened in Peru and Mexico in the 16<sup>th</sup> century. Potosi’ in Bolivia and Zacatecas in Mexico were the largest mines. The Crown owned all subsoil rights and so the ambitious Spaniards felt that in order to exploit the resources of the New World they had to make use of the natives’ physical skills and labor. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> Although the concept of slavery is often discussed alongside forced labor in the Indies yet significant differences exist. It is obvious that the main concern of the Spaniards was to exploit the natural resources of the area through mining and agriculture and to extract tributes from the natives. A large portion of the initial lot of Spanish believed that the natives due to their brutality were meant to be slaves. However, with the passage of time this view also changed, with individuals such as Bartolome’ de las Casas advocating the rights of the native populations and opposing the violence inflicted by colonizers. This also drove the Spaniards to bring in more African slaves and extract from them the type of work that they feared the natives could not perform. The Blacks always had a certain stigma attached to them and occupied a distinct place in the Latin society of the time. Moreover, it is obvious to a great extent that in certain types of labor the Spanish trusted the blacks much more than the natives. This was because they were aware that the natives were in familiar territory and between local well knit communities. This indicated towards more chances of revolt and rebellion from the natives. Also, they had come under foreign rule recently and so this idea was still something new to them and was still itching in their minds. On the other hand, the Blacks had been slaves for generations under the control of the Europeans. With the beginning of the 18<sup>th</sup> and 19<sup>th</sup> centuries forced labor soon began to take the form of debt bondage with natives taking loans and providing their labor in return. When drawing parallels one is bound to notice that the natives paid tributes to their Spanish encomienderos. This consisted of a proportion of the yield of the land on which they worked. African slaves, on the other hand, had no such responsibility. They were completely dependent on their masters. Slavery has a concept of “ownership” attached to it. This is the biggest distinction between a slave and an encomienda or native laborer. Slaves were owned by the Spaniards whereas the natives could not be owned by them. Unlike slaves, regarding the natives the colonizers had to consider their kinship ties. Often in later times entire families would be involved in debt bondage. A slave had no links with his kinsmen and so he could be transported anywhere for work. In case of natives the colonizers had to consider the community bonds and geographical location. Another major task that the encomienderos were assigned with was to evangelize the locals. In case of black slaves, this argument is put forward by circles in favor of slave trade however trends throughout the world show that the attitude of colonizers towards African slaves developed a sort of repulsiveness towards Christianity and many of them even converted to other religions such as Islam. On the whole it is possible to argue that even native labor despite its differences was a disguised form of slavery. In both there have been cases of abuse, violence and intense malnourishment, which by today’s standards seem highly brutal and barbaric. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> In hindsight institutions such as slavery and forced labor have been the center of intense debate and controversy. However, they have to be viewed alongside the social and historical context of the time. One of the major purposes behind the conquests to the New World was no doubt to gain wealth from these areas. After the violent takeover and the fall of the Aztec and Inca Empires, the Spanish looked forward to attaining pecuniary benefits. King Philip while addressing his senior administration in 1617 ordered the entire royal machinery to be as efficient as possible so as to extract the maximum wealth from the Indies. Initially the tribute system under the encomiendas seemed the easiest way of benefitting from the local resources. However, soon with the passing of the 1542 laws banning encomiendas many Spaniards looked on to mining and agriculture sectors. In order to extract maximum yield on sugar plantations and also considering the harsh work, the Spaniards had no choice but to employ African slaves. Thus, the African slaves formed an integral part of colonial Latin America’s economy, particularly Cuba and Brazil and especially Cuba where sugar production continues to be a major industry. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><b><u><span style="color: red;">Written By: Chanel Khaliq</span></u></b></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-58075778166583179232012-05-02T17:55:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00The Royal Prerogative is a feature of the UK Constitution<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b><u>Introduction</u></b> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The U.K. constitution is described as an “unwritten constitution”. However it is best described as ‘partly written and wholly un-codified.” (Budge et al, 1998)<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span>Its main source is statute law. These are laws, which are passed by UK parliament, particularly important for determining the scope and power of government. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Other source is common law from which constitution authority is derived. Though common law has largely been replaced by statute law, it is very important in certain fundamental constitutional principles such as Royal Prerogative. This paper considers Royal Prerogative, which is a very special feature of UK constitution. Royal Prerogative refers to those powers left over from when the monarch was directly involved in the government. It concerns legislature, judicial system, foreign affairs, armed forces, appointments and honors, privileges and immunities and prerogative in times of emergency. The scope of Royal Prerogative as well as reforms undertaken in this regard has been highlighted. The thesis of this paper is that UK government has resolved to increase parliamentary oversight in relation to treaties, war powers, senior appointment and management of civil service. It has suggested that prerogative powers could be candidate for abolition or reform, but their continued existence, has no significant negative effects.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><b><u>Royal prerogative and its scope</u></b> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Royal Prerogative refers to those powers left over from when the monarch was directly involved in the government. It gives the Crown (the monarch) special powers such as power to declare war, to make treaties, deploying the armed forces, regulating the civil service, to pardon criminals and to dissolve parliament. In today’s time, monarch exercise ceremonial roles in such matters, but royal prerogative gives immense power to ministers acting on the Queen’s behalf. Its exercise doesn’t require the approval of the parliament. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Constitutional lawyers have summarized the main areas in which the prerogative is used today. It concerns legislature, judicial system, foreign affairs, armed forces, appointments and honors, privileges and immunities and prerogative in times of emergency.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span></span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The scope of the Royal prerogative is difficult to determine. Court is said to be the final arbiter of the existence and extent of a particular time of prerogative power. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span> The role of the court in determining the existence and extent of the prerogative can be a significant control on the prerogative. This control is strengthened by common law which states that courts can’t create new prerogatives. Moreover the courts are now able to scrutinize the manner in which such powers are exercised. One channel it is done is through the Human Rights Acts, where an aggrieved person may challenge an act or omission of the executive in the UK. The other is the judicial review, which provides a check and balance on the actions of the ministers so that they are not unreasonable and that the powers are not exercised in a procedural unfair way. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Some Acts passed in the recent years have brought significant reform, though they are not primarily aimed at reformed the Royal prerogative. For e.g. Civil Contingencies act have devised a flexible and broader framework for dealing with emergencies, covering majority of the situations which previously were under the use of Royal prerogatives. Secondly, the inquiries act 2005 replaced or reproduced all of the prerogative power to call public inquiries. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><b><u>Constitutional Reforms to Royal Prerogative:</u></b> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Modernization of Royal prerogative has been the central theme of the Governance of Britain agenda<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span>. Governance of Britain Green Paper set out plans for wide-reaching constitutional reforms. It stated that the power of the government flowing from public should be subjected to account by the parliament.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span> It stressed that if the parliament is not able to scrutinize and challenge government actions then the voters wouldn’t believe that government wield power appropriately. More over public confidence in the accountability of the government is being lost. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In October 2009, the government published the review of the prerogative powers.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span> It stated that a number of ways can be devised to subject prerogative powers to control and examination by the parliament. These included legislation, accountability of parliament and Parliament approval of expenditure. In this case, ministers are accountable to Parliament for all their actions including those taken under the prerogative powers. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Regarding Armed forces, the Royal prerogative is a central to its organization and existence. It is one element of the complex administration structure of the armed forces. The primary prerogative power concerning armed force i.e. their deployment has already been made subject to reform proposal. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span> It has been suggested that the decision by the Government to commit forces to armed conflict should be approved by the House of Commons.<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span> Parliament exercises control over the Armed Forces through oversight on the expenditure of defense. Ministry of Defense is also subject to scrutiny by Defense Select Committee of the House of Commons. Thus, manifestations of prerogative in relation to armed forces are closely interwoven with statutory provisions. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Royal prerogative of mercy is exercised by Sovereign on ministerial advice. Secretary of State for justice is responsible for recommending the exercise of this prerogative. The grant of free pardons has declined as a result of the right to appeal in the court. It is suggested that Royal prerogative to grant free, unconditional pardons have largely been superseded by statutory provisions. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In the case of emergency, UK government had range of non statutory powers to enable it to respond to emergencies. However Civil Contingency Act has replaced the emergency power framework set under Emergency Powers Act 1920 and Civil Defense Act 1948. Now prerogative powers can be abolished by legislation. Civil Contingency Act has “covered the field leaving no room for the continuation of the prerogative. However, important aspects remain for use in case of particular urgency or disruption. This provides a mechanism to make up for the weakness when statutory provisions are not able to respond because of insufficient time. The important priority of the government remains to guarantee safety and security of its citizens. This allows the government to retain these residual powers. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><b><u>Need for Royal Prerogative:</u></b> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The report published by Public Administration Select Committee rationalized the need for such powers on the ground that they are necessary for the provision of effective administration, especially in the time of national emergency. However, it is to be considered that they should be subject to more systematic parliamentary oversight. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Prerogative powers can provide flexibility in dealing with exceptional circumstances which are not covered by statutory provisions. It provides a basis on which it is possible for the government to act outside the framework of Civil Contingencies Act 2004 in circumstance of exceptional urgency or disruption. Failure to do so or doing otherwise such as enacting a statutory power can result in either broad statutory power or one that is insufficiently flexible. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Further more certain prerogatives covering a wide area can’t be entangled. For example Armed forces operate through a mix of prerogatives through state and statute. Placing it in statutory basis is a complex and large-scale exercise. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Moreover, some powers are best described as “archaic”. These are prerogatives of little importance in the modern age. They comprise of small and specific issues like the Crown’s right to sturgeon wild and unmarked swans and whales. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In some case it is difficult to suggest that whether the prerogative power has been wholly replace by the statute or whether there is residual power which subsists. Even if residual power subsists, it is rational to argue that such power provides flexibility in the time of need. Such “residual” powers are of the minor nature, more of a legacy of time. For e.g. the Treasure Act 1996 applies to all objects found after September 1997, but the prerogative is relevant for a small number of objects found before the date. In addition to this, review has resulted in the decision to preserve prerogative power for e.g. in the case of BBC charter review. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The government proposes to address the concerns against royal prerogatives on a case-by-case basis, in the light of changing circumstances however it is against the “major reform” at present<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span>. The constitution is said to have evolved organically.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Residual prerogative powers are seldom exercised in their proper way. Firstly, use of the prerogative powers once considered threat to the parliament, such as the withholding the Royal Assent to legislation has fallen into disuse and it is unthinkable of its application in the today’s time. Other smaller powers have also been replaced because they have been replaced by a statutory scheme or because they have become dysfunctional. The power to amend and grant Royal charter is one such power. Secondly, the personal prerogatives which Monarch once used on their own initiative are now merely endorsed decision. For e.g. appointment of Prime Minister or the dissolution of the parliament are now endorsed decisions of the ruling party and the electorate. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Thirdly, the prerogative power to grant appointment and honors are no more a cause of controversy or embarrassment. The resulting decision is determined by Minister and Opposition party leaders and Monarch is merely a conduit for such state patronage. Fourthly, the prerogative power to grant mercy or pardon convicted criminals is exercised as an act of grace on the advice of Home Secretary. Such actions create little fuss in Parliament about procedural grounds though at times opposition on substantial grounds related to the case can arise. <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><b><u>Conclusion</u></b> <br /><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Against the backdrop of Civil Contingencies Act 2004, Inquiry Act 2005 and BBC Charter Review, Government of Britain has initiated reform to those manifestations of Royal prerogative powers which have attracted most attention and criticism. It has resolved to increase parliamentary oversight in relation to treaties, war powers, senior appointment and management of civil service. It has undergone an examination of the current state of the prerogative powers and has provided a consolidated list of prerogative powers. It is suggested that remaining prerogative powers could be candidate for abolition or reform, but their continued existence, has no significant negative effects. It is arguable to say that some of the legislation to replace the prerogatives may give arise to new risks. One risk is the unnecessary incursion into the civil liberties at one hand and unnecessary loss of flexibility to respond to unforeseen circumstance on the other hand. The government has proposed that it would be unnecessary to propose further major reform to executive prerogative powers. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraph" style="line-height: 150%;"></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 12px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s1600/stages-of-grief.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: #3c78a7; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s200/stages-of-grief.jpg" style="border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 5px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 32px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><u style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">About The Author</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 32px;">: Hamid Khan is a an alumni of Lahore University of Management Sciences. He received his Master's degree in Economics from LUMS. His areas of interest includes economics and social science. He can be reached at <b>2hmdKhan(at-the-rate)gmail.com</b></span> </div></div><br /><div><br /><div id="ftn13"></div></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-58044832963679910132012-05-02T17:44:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Dominant Ideology And Media<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: justify;"> <img height="246" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiVw6F_OSLCNXqNcH8R-AZed43gi2tHXnbknkzQmAeUFh-1g_YRR3UdToXXCLFoho5pUqWoxveZ3SzaImo0OJGZkRY5nG2Q4LLTuMpIir8tvZ0Y2ca_O3pFbSSgnsB59v4_VJDgEOhMeiix/s320/manipulasi-media-300x231.jpg" width="320" /> </div><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-align: left;">This paper considers the explanatory value of the concept ‘dominant ideology’. It begins with the Marxist definition of the dominant ideology and discusses aspects of dominant ideology from the Marxists and the contemporary Neo-Marxists perspective. The Neo-Marxist perspective of the dominant ideology has been used to describe the values related to faith and religion. It focuses on the use of media as a source of propagation of dominant ideology. Some critiques of the writers, the explanatory value of the dominant ideology have also been considered which contradict its traditional view. Finally the essay concludes with the traditional and the critical view of the ideology and bourgeoisie class.</span><span style="color: #2a2a2a; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-align: left;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In the Marxist perspective, “Dominant ideology” is referred to as the ideology of the majority in a population. This ideology remains to be prevalent given that interests of the dominant class are fulfilled. This can lead to seizure of development process in the subordinate class, who are unable to form an effective opposition. It can be said without doubt that the ideas of the dominant class are deeply penetrated into the social system.<w:sdt citation="t" id="33487782"> (Williams, 1977)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">According to Karl Marx, ‘Social class determines consciousnesses. The relationship of a class to the modes of production generates cultural conditions and its material conditions. In other words it can also be said that each class has a separate belief system because each has its own interests due to difference in their economic conditions. Secondly each mode of production has a dominant class which is responsible for a dominant ideology to ensure the subordination of the working class. Marx also distinguished two types of social influences in the formation of ideologies. The main source of ideas is the experiences of individuals as they continue their daily life experiences. David Cheal calls the reactions to these daily activities as the ‘practical ideas.’ Another source through which individuals are introduced to new ideas is called ‘received ideas’ as these are achieved through social interactions or communication between individuals. For Gramsci, the presence of these two sources of ideas can lead to contradictions, which he called ‘contradictory consciousness.’ Such types of contradictions are unevenly distributed among the classes. For dominant classes, they form a consistent system of thought and the consequences of such contradictions are insignificant. However for subordinate classes, these contradictions are large and significant. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487788">(Cheal, 1979)</w:sdt> Leading thinkers in Marxist ideology, Althussers and Paulantzas argue that the dominance in political or ideological structures is determined by economic base. Such dominance is sometimes also facilitated by non-economic factors like religion. In feudal and pre-capitalist societies religion was used to ensure that a continuous labor source was available from the peasantry. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487789">(Abercrombie & Turner, 1978)</w:sdt> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">According to Marxists, media plays an important role in spreading the dominant ideology and in building a sense of consensus among the population about right and wrong nature of things. This in a sense can be true as media has means to provide false information and completely ignore or brand something unreasonable which challenges the dominant ideology. Media presents ideas of the ruling class while marginalizing voices of minority. The power structures in media can be further broken down to the interests of the owners and managers of a media group. Murdock argues that the two important reasons that recede power of ruling class is the growth of professional managers and the creation of new capital enterprise. As industry grows, so does the need for managers. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487785">(Gitlin, 1979)</w:sdt> This in turn increases the influence of professional managers and threatens the power base of the owners.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">According to Paul Wingfield media present information in a way that is relevant, has meaning and is acceptable in general. It capitalizes on the general knowledge and dominant ideology in order to transform the information into reality. The ideas that are presented not only get rooted in the media but also into the institutions of the society. Thus media not only plays role in strengthening of the widespread beliefs in a society but is also capable of changing the whole thinking of a society.<w:sdt citation="t" id="33487978"> (Nesbitt-Larking, 2007)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The belief that the dominant ideology of church and other religion have been prevalent historically has been opposed by authors in the contemporary times based on the studies they have done on the peasant and other societies. Martin Goodridge (1975) in the <i>Ages of faith, Romance and Reality </i>notes, in a comprehensive examination of the peasantry in countries like France, England and Italy that the class has been left estranged from the dominant ideological views of faith from the mainstream church. He notes that the religious clergy of the particular area was although influential in asserting the ideology of faith only symbolically, but was considered, in those societies to be, unreliable source of faith and belief. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487784">(Goodrige, 1975)</w:sdt>The similar line of logic is also applicable to the capitalist societies of the early times. The dominant ideologies of individualism and the doctrines of the utilitarianism were very important components of the 1950s and were widespread in the realms of morality, economy and religion. However, individualism has been connected to the human ancestry and the connection to modern capitalism is very difficult to establish. Following such a line of logic as individualism and the ancestry of human beings, the dominant ideology is the by-product of human ancestry and not of the dominant ideology of the modern capitalism and bourgeoisie class. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487783">(Abercrombie & Turner, 1978)</w:sdt> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">While criticizing Marxism, Abercrombie argues about the shortcomings of the theories of Marxist ideology. He is of the view that the problem with Marxist theories of culture is of methodological character. The basic assumption of the dominant ideology model is that the ruling class controls the means of intellectual production and hence is able to control thoughts and beliefs of the subordinate class. Even in order to protest against the dominant ideology, the subordinate class will need some medium, which itself occurs to be at the hands of the ruling class. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487822">(Abercrombie & Turner, 1978)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The existence of a common ideology between the dominant and the dominated class is the basic assumption on which the dominant ideology lies. Critics have argued that the dominating never really shared the ideology of the dominated and they always had their own sets of beliefs, ideas and concepts regarding the different spheres of life. Even in the days of the feudal landlords, it was the dominant class which was adhering to its own sets of values and the dominated class was not very willing to comply with these. <w:sdt citation="t" id="33487823">(Nesbitt-Larking, 2007)</w:sdt> It has also been suggested that the dominant ideology was a means to keep the dominant class together and united on a common platform. The ruling class had developed their own standards and rules and while their attempts to make their subordinates follow those standards were not very successful, this common ideology held the ruling class together.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">One reason for doubting Marx’s theory in feudal times is that it was very difficult to disseminate information or principles in those days. If we consider Marx’s theory in light of our current times, we will find that his theory carries more weight now than at any other time. In feudal times, the dominant ideology need not be shared by both the rulers and the subordinates. The rulers were mostly independent and they did not need people to comply with their ideology as long as they were obeying their orders without question. In contemporary times however, this has become a necessity. With the rise of democratic governments and people wanting to have a say in the system of governance, it has become essential for governments to convince people to share their ideologies and both the rulers and the ruled need to share perspectives on issues. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">This has enabled mass media to flourish as a strong force in state matters. However, with the rise of corporations, the power dynamics of societies have changed completely and the corporations play a huge role in policy making. The government, the corporations and the media have now become a closely knit group and the ideologies of both the government and corporations are spread by the media. This is a universal phenomenon in both the developed and the undeveloped world, although the end game is usually different. Whatever the end game, the media is always a major player, more than religion ever was in previous years.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Noam Chomsky, in an interview, explained the role of media in shaping perspectives. He said “They (The media) also shape the discussion in such a way that people do not perceive what is happening. A striking example is the Israel Arab conflict. United States and Israel are effectively annexing the valuable parts of the West Bank. That is presented as withdrawal and they are praising Israel for withdrawing from the West Bank, referring to the policy which is about annexing the West Bank.” So the interests and the ideologies of the rulers are spread among the population by the media and due to the diverse means that it has, it can shape the way people look at a particular problem.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">An argument against this prevalent case of media bias has been presented by Arafat Al Jameel. He cites the example of British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) which does not gather money from any particular organization and is funded by annual TV license fees. It has in its charter that it will not be influenced by any organization, be it private or government.<w:sdt citation="t" id="33487787"> (Jameel, 2009)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The laws and regulations which make BBC an autonomous broadcasting corporation indicate that its philosophy does not seem to adhere to Marxism through which a ruling class exercises its influence to control over the individuals. It appears that the source of finance to the BBC does not come from one particular person; the households who subscribe to the services of the corporation are the main source for its existence. This approach is akin to Pluralism in its view that the readers and listeners are not merely passive or submissive to the media. Instead, everyone has a voice and therefore able to play a tangible role in affecting the media. (Williams 2003).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">However, his explanation has also been targeted for criticism. Even with its claim of being exclusive to pressures from both government and private corporations, BBC has to report according to regulations of the government and its reporting during the Iraq War was claimed to be highly biased. The corporation helped cover up the embarrassment faced by the government over their decision to go into War with Iraq and not find weapons of mass destruction in the country. So this ‘Triad’ of government, corporations and media has developed a new apparatus of spreading the dominant ideology within people and to shape the people’s thoughts to match their own interests.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Marxist theorists tend to emphasize the role of the mass media in the reproduction of the status quo, in contrast to liberal pluralists who emphasize the role of the media in promoting freedom of speech. The Marxist view of dominant ideology still has some strength as it draws our attention to the important factor of social class in relation to media ownership and the effect it has on the consumers. Although consumers in large can affect what the media showcases, the biases of media towards particular social and political pressures cannot be ignored. The notion that media produces false consciousness in the working class is an extreme stance, which sees media products as the ideology of the ruling class only. This completely ignores the diversity of opinions and the oppositional views that exist in the public.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 12px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s1600/stages-of-grief.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: #3c78a7; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s200/stages-of-grief.jpg" style="border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 5px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; line-height: 24px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify;"><div style="text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 32px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><u style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">About The Author</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 32px;">: Hamid Khan is a an alumni of Lahore University of Management Sciences. He received his Master's degree in Economics from LUMS. His areas of interest includes economics and social science. He can be reached at <b>2hmdKhan(at-the-rate)gmail.com</b></span> </div></div><br /></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-35860301699013417342012-05-02T17:38:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Han Dynasty and Women<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-indent: 0.5in;"><img height="320" src="http://www.cultural-china.com/chinaWH/upload/chunzhuangnei1.jpg" width="295" /> </div><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">This paper discusses the role of women in the Han dynasty based on the primary and secondary literature of the course. As has been the case for prior dynasties, family constituted the fundamental unit of society in Han dynasty. This resulted in the formation of patriarchal hierarchy. Legalism was extreme and the imperative nature of <i>filial piety </i>made the hierarchy to be codified in law. More over the needs of the group were above the needs of the individual and society was categorized into classes. Women are one of the class and enjoyed reverence however, women were not allowed to enjoy individual lives and were forced to assume the roles determined by the system. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Primordial <i>Filial Piety<o:p></o:p></i></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> Influenced by the teachings of Confucius and other thinkers, Filial piety was given more consideration by the Han dynasty than its predecessors did. Filial piety implied a well run family where parents looked after the children and in turn children were expected to take care of their parents and support them in their old age. The importance of the <i>Filial Piety </i>is suggested by the fact that the brief <i>classic of filial piety </i>is considered to be written in the early Han dynasty. <i>Filial Piety </i>was defined as the whole hearted devotion to parents however the connotations are extended to accommodate for the devotion to superiors.<w:sdt citation="t" id="12493732"> (Ebrey)</w:sdt> “Filial piety is the root of virtue and source of civilization.”<w:sdt citation="t" id="12493744"> (Ebrey)</w:sdt> If man exhibited paramount <i>filial piety, </i>he could be exalted to the status of official in the society. The importance of <i>filial piety </i>enabled the family to be the central focus of allegiance for most Chinese. The important goal of each individual Chinese life was to serve his ancestors through sacrifices and safeguarding the lineage of the family. <w:sdt citation="t" id="12493731">(Lockard)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Family was given prime consideration by the Chinese individual as it provided for psychological and economic security to him. However, it was led by a senior male and lineage was only traced through male line. In family, mother and father enjoyed apparently equal status and were revered by children equally. Given the ascendancy of filial piety and patriarchic nature of family life being driven by senior males, Women felt to be at a relative disadvantage compared to men. At childhood, daughter was expected to revere her father, when married she was expected to be faithful and loyal to her husband and finally as mother to be caring to her children. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Given the ascendancy of family, Chinese society has to a large extent, especially in Han dynasty, been a proponent of patriarch Confucianism. <w:sdt citation="t" id="12493733">(Lockard)</w:sdt> The ideals for women were selfless behavior, loyalty and faithfulness. However this didn’t override the importance of the female. Alluding to the different social positions she assumes, the importance of respect for women has been stressed. “They serve their mothers as they serve their fathers; the love shown them is the same.”<w:sdt citation="t" id="12493734"> (Ebrey)</w:sdt> “The rulers didn’t dare insult the widows and widowers- not to mention the upper class or the common people.”<w:sdt citation="t" id="12493735"> (Ebrey)</w:sdt> Some of the important female figures of the Han dynasty are Lu Zhi (wife of the founder of Han Dynasty), Yu Ji, Zhuo Wenjun, Huan Shaojun. <w:sdt citation="t" id="12493737">(Peterson)</w:sdt></span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Men exercised the essential political power and had the right to control the property. Women had no ownership of property and were not inducted by the institutions holding political power. However, the hierarchy of powers was not flat. Rather, women of different classes enjoyed different status. For e.g. the female relatives of Han emperor had greater influence than most but few of male officials. One such example is the ascendancy of the grandmother of emperor. Given the importance of elders, she had the responsibility to choose the spouse of her grand children and even the future heirs of the throne. <w:sdt citation="t" id="12493756">(Hughes and Hughes)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In Han dynasty, gender roles became stricter. However, Women were allowed to indulge in small scale trade. In addition to doing the household work and taking care of their children, they worked in farms and marketplace for long hours to meet the family needs. The social status enjoyed by women was different depending upon the social class and local patterns. Women enjoyed greater freedom in lower class given the needs of the family. However in the elite classes the freedom was more restricted. Women who worked in the fields and in market place exercised greater influence in their families in contrast to their counterparts in the rich families. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In addition to this, Han cities and societies were organized around categories. These included the rich class, women, lower class and scholar-gentry. Having assumed legalistic approach, the stability came at a cost of strict law and punishment for the poor. To curb the tendencies for criminal offenses, groups were responsible for individual actions. Though the judicial system was considered to be equal to everyone, the strict categorization and organization structure enforce the lower class to bear the brunt of strict legalistic approach. Since family was the unit of society, family bore the responsibility for individual actions. More ever, Polygamy was not allowed. Once widowed, a virtuous woman was not expected to remarry even if forced. She was expected to remain loyal to her husband memory and family. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Furthermore, One very unlikely trend in the Han dynasty was the beginning of biographies of virtuous women and stories about filial piety.<w:sdt citation="t" id="12493970"> (Rainey)</w:sdt> One such example is the tribute to extraordinary women like Mencius’ mother. The basis of selection for the “extraordinary” was the respect for parents and husbands and care for children and family. <i>Admonition of Women </i>written by Ban Zhao is a manifestation of auspicious nature of these ideals.<w:sdt citation="t" id="12493971"> (Rainey)</w:sdt> It inspires the women to be chaste in all ways and develop themselves as moral beings through education in morality. More over filial piety was glorified by admiration of sons and daughters embodying respect for parents and elders. Filial piety was put in perspective through the yin-yang opposite extremes. Obedience and loyalty on the part of children were rationalized as natural trends ordained by the Heaven. This notion ordained the primacy of male authority over children. Relationships hierarchy in family in specific and society in general were thus actively as well as passively based on generation, age and gender. <w:sdt citation="t" id="12493972">(Rainey)</w:sdt><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Family was the fundamental social unity in Han dynasty. This resulted in the formation of patriarchal hierarchy. Rulers in the Han dynasty adopted strict legalism and gave prime consideration to filial piety. This meant that importance of family and hence patriarchal hierarchy was codified in law. Rulers and officials were proponent of patriarchic Confucianism. The codification of precedence of family over individuals in law, both in literal terms and in spirit resulted in increased restrictions for all individuals. Given the patriarchal nature, women were worse off. Respect for women was restricted to traditional roles. The respect directly emanated from the status of the family in the whole society. Given the aristocratic nature of governance in the Chinese society, poor families were bound to bear the brunt of the social injustice generally prevalent in aristocratic societies. This affected the relative rights of women in different classes too. For upper classes, women were bound to remain indoors, restricted by the filial piety for their husbands and children. In poor families, restrictions were loosened by the economic forces and women were allowed to work in markets. Women enjoyed greater freedom in lower class given the needs of the family. However the double standards regarding polygamy were uniform in the whole Han society. Men were allowed to remarry for procreation whereas women were expected to remain loyal to her husband even in the case of his death.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Moreover, women were not allowed to enjoy non-traditional individual lives and were forced to assume the roles determined by the system. Leadership chances were restricted for women. Even in the case of women being a regent, men exercised greater control of the decision making. The patriarchal Confucianism portended that women exhibit faithfulness, loyalty and this implied that women were considered subjects more or less equivalent to the role of domesticated animals.<b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 12px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s1600/stages-of-grief.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: #3c78a7; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s200/stages-of-grief.jpg" style="border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 5px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;"><u style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">About The Author</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;">: </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;"><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">Hamid Khan is a alumni of Lahore University Of Management Sciences. He has done his masters in Economics from LUMS</span></span><span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica;"><span style="line-height: 24px;">.His areas of interest includes Economics and Social Sciences. He can be reached at<b> 2hmdkhn(at-the-rate)gmail.com</b></span></span></span></div><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-5200360885967112162012-05-02T17:31:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.493-07:00Developmental Stage and Reciprocal Consent - Economic Miracle in Japan, Taiwan and Korea.<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Introduction:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Developmental state, a notion aroused from the exponential growth of Asian tigers, refers to the state-led economic planning. Such a state envisions projecting itself as an autonomous body through increased political power and effective control over the economy to imbibe its ideals in the economic system. It is characterized by strong state interventions in the economy, rigorous regulations and centralized economic planning. At the other extreme, there lies a weak or predatory state which entrusts private profit seekers and the market with the role of raising prosperity levels by increasing economic efficiency. Developmental state is focused on the protection of domestic industries through technology transfers, import substitution, export promotion and emphasis on technical education policies. It exhibit narrow institutionalism as opposed to broader institutionalism and has extensive focus on statist paradigm with little importance given to public-private collaboration.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: 1.5pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">(Hundt, 2008) <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">These rationales of state dominance in the economic development are challenged by reciprocal consent. It holds that though state help structure the market choices but public/private negotiation also structure state and market choices alike. The mechanism of relationship is defined by the type of market structure, extent of centralization, timing of the development, openness of the economy, policies of the ruling coalition and nature of administrative tradition explains the nature and extent of state intervention. (Samuels, 1987) Developmental state is characterized by few pilot agencies guiding the overall process of intervention with policy tool are linked to the private sector performance through a structure of incentives. Civil society is weak and easily subordinated. States builds extensive coalition with industry and plays down leftist elements. This paper deals with the developmental state and reciprocal consent arguments in explaining the development trajectories across Japan, Korea and Taiwan over the course of Post-War period. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Korea: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Korean economic bureaucracy has played a central force in the shaping of the development. It has informed Korean political leaders of policy options that may undermine state power creating a tension by simultaneous pursuit of maximal state autonomy and socio-economic development. This has created a web of bureaucracy power reinforcing in the economic decision making of the country. Pilot agencies has defined the direction for the overall intervention in targeted industries in the economy, coordinated investment decisions for them and devised intervention policies. In Korea, Economic Planning Board, had assumed the role of pilot agency, and had driven the course of the economic development under the auspices of strong bureaucracy. It has extensively promoted labor-intensive manufacturing in the 60’s, heavy industries in the late 70’s and technology and services in the 1980’s.</span></div><a name='more'></a> <o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Korean states placed strict performance benchmarks for the firms participating in the priority sectors. Incentives had been designed for the firms to participate in these sector with certain threads attached to them. State bore the extensive risk of economic development and bestowed business leaders with privileged position in the political economy. As put forth by James West, Korean state’s relationship with business is like a practical dialectic of power and profit with power playing the role of senior partner. (Hundt, 2008)<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">However the trends have changed. After the 1990s, the relationship between pilot agencies and private firms has characterized by firms deciding about entering into certain industries rather than state dictating their preferences. However once industry has received enough entrants, it becomes logical as well as possible for the pilot agency to exercise regulations in the industry. More over, trade unions have emerged in the 1980’s and have assumed extensive power since then. This trends plays down the predominance of the developmental state notion which assumes weak civil society. Extensive openness of the economy has been augmented with democratization of the polity. Increased degree of contestation in Korean political economy and the declining trends in the continuous development elements of the Korean state can’t be explained with developmental state presumptions. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Business leaders are endowed with structural power of capital which is the ability to resist changes as imposed by the state. The capital enjoys ample mobility and is not concentrated into few geographic places. Firms can withdraw their resources from the economy on the account of deleterious changes and hence have the ability to resist changes. Beside these, large firms also possess considerable market power. In the Korean developmental alliance, <i>Chaebols</i>, large business investors, have extensive role in the economy. <i>Chaebols </i>have over-invested in the economy. In 1980’s Korea political economy underwent radical changes. In this period <i>Chaebols </i>gained at the expense of state. For Korean state, the quality of the investment is of prime consideration. Therefore challenge for the state is to prevent irresponsible behavior on the part of the C<i>haebols </i>in the form of redundant or speculative investments. This transition of role toward private businesses in the developmental alliance can be aptly put forth as state dominance to interdependence. It can be safely said that state’s developmental capacities helped its own decline as civil society and <i>Chaebols </i>gained strength. However in the aftermath of Asian crises, state oversaw a range of industrial and financial restructuring programs which renewed the state capacity to discipline the open market. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">According to Amsden, as in the case of South Korea, the state has promoted late industrialization through subsidies as well as through promoting discipline.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: 1.5pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">(Smith, 2000) Subsidies have become the policy tool for the state to decide the extent and nature of production and the type of strategic industries to favor. These allocations of subsidies have rendered South Korean state from acting as mere banker to become a shrewd entrepreneur. The state has set stringent performance requirement in return for the subsidies it provides. Subsidies and discipline introduce consistency in the carrot and stick policy. The policy objective of the government are rationalized through granting or withholding industrial licensing, government bank loans, advanced technology acquired by the government through foreign licensing and technical assistance. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Korea has focused toward further deepening of the industrial sector. Deepening of the industrial sector require generation of additional supplies of factor of production. Physical and human capital accumulation is required for the industrialization to proceed.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Japan: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Japan faced strenuous economic situations immediately after the world war two. Destruction of production facilities, loss of the territory were augment by constraints such as spiraling population and reduced supply of the raw materials. In the post-war Japan, ministry of trade and industry was the pilot agency to set interventionist policies for the targeted industries. It is now regarded as the key institution in helping the Japanese emergence as a major economic power. It took control of Japanese “industrial policy” and guided public and private sector firms in the direction of rapid economic growth. However in this regards, as has been argued by many commentators, the economic development was not monopolistically dominated by the state. It has been argued that reciprocal consent holds true as well because the state actively elicited support from firms in its energy sector. State’s bureaucracy is not the dominant force in the development, rather it negotiated with business. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">MITI was not extensively focused on directing investments and trade in particular sector of the economy but aimed to persuading Japanese manufacturing and trading companies to enter new areas of economic activity and exporting through consensus building measures. MITI was run by pragmatic bureaucrats to spot new trends, assess strengths and weaknesses of the Japanese producers.</span><span style="color: #333333; font-size: 12.0pt; letter-spacing: 1.5pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">(Thompson, 1998) The growth of the Japanese economy from 1920s to 1970s is attributed to the economic bureaucracy of the MITI. MITI had extensively contributed toward reorganization of productive structures to meet its goals. The policy tools to its discretion were technology transfers, joint venturing, patent rights, royal conditions and licensing agreement. These policy considerations were subject to its jurisdiction during the rapid phase of industrial development. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">MITI is the considerate as the main instrument of Japan’s developmental state. However, in the recent past, this pilot agency has failed to spot trends in key development areas such as information technology. The golden era of MITI power and influencing came to a steady end after liberalization schemes of the Japanese economy were introduced in the 1960s. More ever, in the IT sector, Japan’s success depended on the collaboration of the state with the market forces for industry’s development. The presumption that state dominates or at-least directs development portrays business and the markets as objects managed by state elites. However this creates a false dichotomy between the economy and the state. The state needs to be considered as an economic actor that operates within the market, though in more authoritative manner. (Hundt, 2008) The ability of MITI to encourage private companies especially in the petro-chemical industry has at best been truncated. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Some commentators have argued that the <i>Japanese Miracle </i>was not the result of industrial policy rather it was the result of the dynamism of the private sector toward responding to the economic growth ideals. The dynamism aroused for the structural change endeavor of the industrial policy. Efforts were geared toward the transformation of Japan into an industrial society as a response the situation prevailing in the postwar contexts.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Japan after the 1980s distinguishes itself from most of the Western Europe states because of the near absence of state ownership. Powerful private actors established alliances with politicians and bureaucrats in development of commerce and industry. Market conforming actions of the Japanese state has led to the market structure transformation in Japan. These notions are in stark contrast to the bureaucratic dominance and the developmental state in Japan. The Japanese state is characterized by a high level of public-private cooperation, balance of bureaucratic autonomy and linkages with private sector.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In Japan, market and state structure is the product of negotiation and opportunity different from bureaucratic dominance and developmental state notions. The frame work of interaction can aptly be explained by the framework of “reciprocal consent”. In this framework, states do drive the structure of market choice but this direction of interaction is not unilateral. Rather public/private negotiation irresistibly structure state and market choices alike.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Taiwan:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In 1949, Nationalist-mainlander poured into Taiwan facing no internal opposition. Land reforms were instituted for increase agricultural yields to produce sizeable exports and generate linkage effects. Extensive investments in rural infrastructure and irrigation were undertaken in 1950’s. Exchange rate was kept over-valued to benefit industrialist in keeping the food prices low as well as their import costs minimal for the promotion of exports. Multiyear development plans were initiated to inculcate growth in the economy. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Agri-Producer prices were low and technology and heavy tax policy were used for the use in industrialization. Quantitative restrictions on imports and high tariffs were used to control external competition. The process of import substitution was complete by 1957. Market-distortion as well as market-replacing methods was used for the establishment of textile sector to imbibe vertical integration and economy of scale. State played an active role in the establishment of plastic sector. Developmental plans were designed to direct investments in targeted industries. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">State has been continued to concentrate on the development of large-scale firms of the upstream industries while leaving the small-scale firms relatively freer. The factories were handed over to selected private entities or were turned into public enterprises. In Taiwan case, notion of the centrality of the state in the development of the country holds true. However, State has at times not only been a leader in the development but it has also become a follower actively assisting the private enterprise in their success whilst pursuing its goal of economic development. Moreover it was not the state pushing the firms into different sectors of the economy. It was the private enterprises which demanded for assistance and hence pulled the state in the direction toward certain sectors. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In light of numerical researches, price distortion score for Taiwan is lower in comparison with other developing countries whereas it has exhibited a highest growth giving splendidly consistent results for a strong inverse correlation between price distortion and economic growth. Government has been actively intervening to alter the trade and industrial profile of the economy as deemed desirable.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Taiwan along with Korea is among the standing out countries benefiting from the import substitution to the overall growth in the manufacture output. Industrialist who emerged in the 1950s remained the industry giants till 60s and 70s. Taiwan has witnessed its resource being shifted from agriculture into industry and with-in industry from labor-intensive, low technology activities toward more capital intensive and higher technology activities. Though Taiwanese state has been able to achieve success in increase the accumulation of factor of production, Industrial targeting policies has largely been a failure with displacing growth from one industry to another without raising the aggregate output. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Small and medium sized firms dominate the Taiwan export manufacturing sector which makes the centralized coordination by developmental state less conducive. Political schism between Nationalist party (Kuomintang or KMT) and Taiwanese small entrepreneurs make cooperation difficult discounting the notion of reciprocal consent. Taiwan has extensively focused on the widening of its industrial sector which is important in the early stages of industrialization. Widening of the industrial sector require generation of additional supplies of factor of production. Physical and human capital accumulation is required for the industrialization to proceed. The state had a directive role in 1960s which accelerated move into heavy and skill intensive industries. In the 1970s government resorted to promotional role driving away from labor-intensive industries toward heavy and skill-intensive industries. The push into the new capital and technology intensive industries in the mid 1970s supports the self regulating nature of market rather and anticipating these changes in advance. During this era state, along with reaffirming its leadership role, was signaling about the value of profitable private sector. However, according to Galenson, Taiwan big push into capital and technology-intensive industries was state-led and not market led. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In the early 1970s Taiwan exports started facing protectionist threats. Increasing wages and competition in different sectors along with over-stretching of infrastructure were formidable obstacles to be faced by the industrialists. The sixth fourth-year plan aimed to address them through increased political leadership and political control initiated renewed emphasis on export orientation and signaling state support of targeted sectors and their subsectors. It also undertook huge increase in public sector investments for improving the physical infrastructure. Hence 1970s saw expansion in the role of public enterprise sector. In 1973 to 1975, Taiwan government was determined to reduce Taiwan’s vulnerability to the fluctuations in the prices of key factors of productions through increasing the capacity in heavy and chemical industries. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Conclusion: <o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Developmental state is characterized by few pilot agencies guiding the overall process of intervention with policy tools linked to the private sector performance through a structure of incentives. Civil society is weak and easily subordinated. States builds extensive coalition with industry and plays down leftist elements. The extent of state intervention and logic of developmental state depends upon five variables. These are extent of control by bureaucracy, social pressures, national security imperatives, economic conditions and globalization. Developmental state has commitment to private property and the market. The market is closely regulated by the state institutions which are responsible for the development of the economy. The mechanism of relationship is defined by the type of market structure, extent of centralization, timing of the development, openness of the economy, policies of the ruling coalition and nature of administrative tradition explains the nature and extent of state intervention. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">In Japan, Korea and Taiwan has undergone industrialization through aggressive government intervention. Market has been guided by the authorities and competitive processes have been moderated. The nature of the government-business relation has changed irreversibly from the state led economic decision making to an increased emphasis on private sector taking more initiatives. Coordination, communication and cooperation have increased between the public and private sector over the course of time. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"> As the Japan’s economy matures, the role of MITI has declined with companies transforming themselves into world class operations with extraordinary competitive success. Japan distinguishes itself from most of the Western Europe states because of the near absence of state ownership. It prefers to have regulatory or predatory nature as compared to going for outright ownership, because regulation affords greater flexibility without the loss of state authority. Powerful private actors established alliances with politicians and bureaucrats in development of commerce and industry. Market conforming actions of the Japanese state has led to the market structure transformation in Japan. Japanese state has intervened into the market only to enable the private actors to limit and enchase state power simultaneously Control has been retained though jurisdiction of the state has been surrendered. These notions are in stark contrast to the bureaucratic dominance and the developmental state in Japan. The Japanese state is characterized by a high level of public-private cooperation, balance of bureaucratic autonomy and linkages with private sector. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">South Korea entry into heavy industries and cotton textile exports provide evidence for the state intervention under the condition of late industrialization. It has actively pursued measures to solicit the change in the business behavior of the firms in light of the public objectives. In Taiwanese state is opposed too open market system actively helping to insure that resources went into the industries important of the future growth and military strength. Multinational players may assume the role of being an important player but it can only happen after the state had a well established presence and has assumed leadership role from where it can direct activities rather by being driven the rationale for global profits. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;">Developmental state paradigm can no longer explain the postdevelopmentalism phase of Japan, South Korea or Taiwan. Bureaucracy is now relinquishing its self entrusted role of economic development and giving way powerful private sector which it can’t control. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"></div><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 12px; line-height: 21px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: center; text-indent: 0px;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s1600/stages-of-grief.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; color: #3c78a7; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 1em; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s200/stages-of-grief.jpg" style="border-bottom-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; border-color: initial; border-image: initial; border-left-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 1px; border-right-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-right-style: solid; border-right-width: 1px; border-style: initial; border-top-color: rgb(187, 187, 187); border-top-style: solid; border-top-width: 1px; margin-bottom: 5px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 10px; margin-top: 5px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Helvetica; font-size: 12px; line-height: 24px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: justify; text-indent: 0px;"><b style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;"><u style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">About The Author</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;">: </span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;">Hamid Khan is a current student of Economics at lums. His areas of interest includes religion, developmental studies and South Asian economies..</span></div><br /></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-43170257018575164932012-05-02T17:24:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.494-07:00How religion has been effective in the consolidation or nation building of a state?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The relations between the politics and religion have been much debated throughout the history. The extent to which religion should be involved in political affairs as well as the extent to which the state should be involved in religious matters has always been contested. The birth of nation states has even broadened this discussion. It is widely argued that state should have control over the temporal or earthly matters and the religion should be an instrument of eternal grace or the moral sphere of life. In this way St. Augustine favored the division and sharing of sovereignty. <b>‘In my research work I will explain the effectiveness of the application of religious values to the government polity that becomes state support of religion which then further elaborates whether religion has a legitimate right to influence state politics, proposing an alternative pattern by taking the cases of different nations like Israel, Pakistan, Iran and India’.</b> Then I will attempt to give an answer to the question about the exact role of religion in the nation building processing. The research will also analyze the clash between the religious identity and the national identity. Samuel S.Mushi claims that throughout the history the state or the religious organizations have contest mainly for citizens’ primary loyalty, control of political process and authority over economic resources. [1] It will reveal the fact that religion is a vital instrument to create unity, but it is not able to define completely the national identity and the nation building process. However, the significant and functional role of religion cannot be denied.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The findings of the research are worth exploring because currently the world is torn between national versus religious identities. Individuals in different parts of the world are still facing this dilemma – whether to opt for primordial ties or religious identities or national identities, when it comes to represent themselves. Countries like Israel and Pakistan seem to share nothing in common except the similar holy mission to secure a homeland for their communities. We see the crisis of their national identities in both countries because of the clash between state and nation. Both countries are experiencing an ambiguous role of religion in their national building. The paper argues that the role of religion can be best understood by analyzing its role in the homogenization process during nation consolidation. <b>The main hypothesis of this paper which I attempt to explore is that the role of religion in the nation consolidation can be understood as a complex process but I believe that it has the capacity in providing the ideological glue that holds a nation together by creating a modern religious society. </b>It is because political authorities try simultaneously both to empathize and to deny its salience to the construction or consolidation of the new state. The relation between the religious values and the political affairs can be discussed in two distinct phases. Firstly, it can be argued that a homogenous society can be created through the religious values and its applications by excluding the non-religious elements. Secondly the incorporation of the community to the majority one identified by civic, linguistic and other state features. It also attempts to explain different types of religious involvement in politics such as religion-state politics, intra-religion politics and inter-religion politics.</span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The war on terror after the 9/11 has fueled the discussion about the extent of role of religion in the political affairs. Western scholarship holds that Islamic civilization fuses religion and politics and this is main reason for the religious values to define and heavily influence the affairs of the state. Mohammad Waseem calls this an overly intellectual attitude towards Islam that mistakes values for facts, norms for practices and vision for reality. [2] This approach can be traced back to the classical Muslim thinkers where state was viewed as a mechanism through which the rule of Islamic law could be established but historical evidences defy this argument since Islamic movements in Muslim countries including Pakistan are seldom led or governed by any cleric in the pre modern age. The West claims to be the champion of the separation of the church and the state but we observe for the greater part of late fifteen hundred years that this separation, once alien to the political doctrine of Islam, has been the practice in most Islamic societies. However, history witnesses that in recent times ruling elites have appealed more and more often for the support of the clergy or Islamic organizations in their struggle to retain power in the face of grave challenges rooted in populist politics. Religious values and its application are being used as a tactic to consolidate the process of nation building by those who want to gain power or to remain in power. The politics of religion varies with social, economic and political conditions of a country making an attempt to choose among progressive, liberal and conservative which I will discuss in detail in my research work. I will focus on the ‘Religion and Comparative Perspective’ session of the course pack where the article by Samuel S. Mushi and Mohammad Waseem will be discussed in detail.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The problem of Identity in the Nation-Building Process:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">It is being observed that, since 1980s and particularly after the end of cold war era, there has been the resurgence of religious movements worldwide. These religious elements claim to be instrumental in the identity formation and the cohesion of the communities. They are generating state-transforming effects in both national as well as international level so there is a need to uncover this interconnection between the religion and politics. It has the potential to exacerbate the regional disputes and may lead towards what Samuel Huntington has apocalyptically called ‘the clash of civilizations.' [3] We observe some impressive results like the case of Iran where religious parties are now firmly established in addition to other cases from the third world where religion is heavily involved in state politics in case of Pakistan, Sudan, Algeria, Afghanistan, and Egypt. One can dismiss these religious uprisings as fundamentalists but their goals as well as motivations are as political as they are religious. Therefore they may be called as ‘religious nationalists’ because these forces strive to attain a national order based on religious values (the first phase as discussed above). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In recent times various movements of religious nationalism have been witnessed by humanity. Hindus and Sikhs in India in early 1980s for a separate state, militant Buddhists in Sri Lanka and Mongolia, Christian fundamentalist movements in Europe and in America, the famous Zionist movement in Israel and Islamic fundamentalism in Afghanistan, Pakistan and other Middle East and Central Asian states are obvious examples of religious nationalist movements. Unlike most of the developed countries where homogeneity of population exists, majority of these developing or third world states lack population homogeneity. Their population experience diversity in terms of ethnicity, linguistic, tribes, castes, etc. Religion therefore comes as a unifying factor in the nation building process and consolidates their identity.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Case of Pakistan and Israel:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">As earlier stated that Pakistan and Israel share a little in common except the similar holy mission to protect their own communities on the basis of religion they pursue. Israel, being a small country, has gone through a rough face since its independence but it has been able to pursue the democratization process in addition to its economic development. On the other hand Pakistan, once part of a much larger territorial and cultural entity i.e. Indian Subcontinent and British Raj, is still struggling to find a unifying force to consolidate the whole nation and to pursue the goal of democratization and economic development but it has remained a volatile and weak state through out the history. Some pundits even call it a ‘Failing State’ because of its persistent political, social and economic instability. The main common notion between the two countries is the crisis of national identity and it manifests the clash between state and nation. ‘Both countries are struggling through the ambiguous role of religion in the nation building and its capacity to affect the political process.’ [4] <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">For any state the notion of national identity is the key element towards the national building process. The crisis of national identity emerges when confusion prevails within the society as which is the powerful force in unifying the whole nation. Religious affiliations, castes, tribal identities, linguistic identities and most importantly ethnicity play a vital role in the national unity. In the case of Pakistan, according to Maryam Khan, it has always been a victim of ‘sub-nationalism’ i.e. we observe four main nations within the whole phase of Pakistani nationalism besides others. The dominant ideology is ethnicity where Punjabis, Sindhis, Balochis and Pakhtuns, give priority to their own ethic group unlike nationalism. Each group identifies itself through its ethnic identity and then through their national identity i.e. Pakistanis. However each group firstly identities itself as a Muslim identity and hence religious affiliations play a dominant role in the national identity process. The society at large is religious but the state’s outlook is secular or moderate and this creates the difficulty for the state to exercise its duties freely and pursue the agenda of national unity. ‘According to Stephen Cohen, Pakistan’s most distinct feature is not its potential as a failed state but its intricate interaction between the physical, political and legal entity known as the state of Pakistan and the idea of the Pakistani nation and this makes it more complex as Pakistani state often operates at cross purposes with the Pakistani nation.’ [5] He further points out that several concepts of Islam exist and state could not find a way to implement its Islamic identity. Hence the crisis of identity exists between the leaders who believe in liberal democracy and the Islamists who want a religious state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Like Pakistan Israel too has experienced an extensive discord about its national identity in order to define the interconnection between the Israeli national identity and Jewish identity. We observe a clash between the secular Israeli national identity with a religious manifestation of Israeli national identity i.e. Judaism. The Zionist ideology plays a dominant role in the case of Israel. ‘The conflict exists between those who advocate a civic Israeli national identity (Israelis) and those who support an ethno religious identity of the Israeli community (Jews). Israeli identity accommodates all citizens of the Israel i.e. Jews and non-Jews while Jewish means an identification with a primordial mainly religious featured national identity (only Jewish).’ [6] Hence, the process of secularization on one hand and the growing religiosity is currently observed in the Israeli state.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Whether Religion has a legitimate right to influence State politics?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">As stated earlier, according to Samuel S.Mushi, three factors play a crucial role in the consolidation of a nation i.e. citizens’ loyalties, control over political and economic resources. Religious elements as well as the state in complex milieu attempt to influence these factors and try to legitimize their role. Both of them draw their legitimacy from the collective loyalties of the citizens. States follow this pursuit through the democratization process and religious elements try to influence the primordial ties that exist among various communities and this creates a complex process. According to the primordial model (conservative view), nationalism is a process involving collective loyalties and identities and religion is considered as an important component of the national building process. ‘Scholars like A. Hastings explain the emergence of nationalism with regard to religion as they suggest a certain transformation of traditional religion that eventually leads to the birth of the nation states (nations and nationalism)’. [7] The modernist model (secular perspective) on the other hand considers religion which inhibits the growth of a nation and suggests the decay of religion. ‘Scholars like Gellner advocate that national movements have furthered the secularization discourse where idealized ethnic culture plays the central role rather than religion.’ [8] Nationalism, according to the nationalism literature, thus takes the place of religion and scholars like Greenfeld (1996) calls it a modern religion and we observe this from the example of France where if one calls religion bad then it is fine but if someone calls the nation bad then it is highly discouraged and repudiated. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Hence one can argue that religion exclusion lies in the homogenous population of the developed world which formed the basis of western civic nationalism. On the other hand the literature of ‘Religious Nationalism’ elucidates the public sphere and the collective national identity as religious and we witness this experience in the third world countries like Pakistan, Iran, Afghanistan, etc. These third world countries have religious histories (national heritage and tradition), thus religion could not be ignored. Its proponents claim that religion can create a national identity and thus it is crucial to draw boundaries between religious and secular nationalism. This relation is more multifarious than it is generally assumed to be. Both these approaches respond to the same sorts of needs for collective identity, national consensus, ultimate loyalty and moral authority.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; tab-stops: 5.75in; text-align: justify;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Case of India and Iran:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-top: 12.0pt; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Iran represents a complete example of a dominant religious society which was established by the Ayatollah Khomeini in 1979 by ousting the Shah dynasty of Iran. Iran derives its national identity through religion (Shiite Political Philosophy) which has immense influence over the affairs of the state s well as over Iranian culture. The basic idea was to establish an Islamic state similar to the one which existed during the time of Prophet PBUH. In recent time Iran is showing the signs of change and elements within this theocratic state are demanding liberal and democratic pursuits and a balance between religious and secular ideals. The religious forces in Iran are quite strong that voices of change are easily suppressed by this democratic theocracy. According to Khomeini who argues that the qualified Islamic Jurists (the concept of <em><span style="color: #333333;">velayat-e faqih)</span></em> have the potential to lead the nation in the process of national consolidation by pursuing the Islamic ideals. <span class="apple-converted-space"><span style="color: #333333;"> ‘</span></span><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333;">In his 1970 book<i>,</i></span></span><span class="apple-converted-space"><i><span style="color: #333333;"> </span></i></span><em><span style="color: #333333;">Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><i><span style="color: #333333;">, </span></i><span style="color: #333333;">Khomeini argued that government should be run in accordance to sharia, or Islamic law. For that to happen, an Islamic jurist—or faqih</span></span><em><span style="color: #333333;">—</span></em><span class="apple-style-span"><span style="color: #333333;">must oversee the country's political structure.’[9]</span></span><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">In the case of India, its leaders were wise enough to realize and understand this intricate relationship between religion and politics. India, a majority Hindu state, offers little to religion and pursuing accommodative policies since India is a very diverse country in terms of language, ethnicity, caste system and religious identities. Its leaders seemed allergic to religion and followed the ideals of secularism as their political agenda. ‘Yet there have been times when they have been forced to make concessions to religious forces almost against their wills. Indian constitution and subsequent parliamentary actions have given a great deal of public support to religious entities.’ [10] Even these accommodative policies and concessions have not been sufficient to curb the tide of religious politics in India and the events of 1980s and early 1990s (Hindutva movement, Operation Blue Star, Assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi, Babri Mosque tragedy) witness this statement. These events for the first time in the Indian history brought the Hindu right into the power and marked the dominant role of religion in the national consolidation. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The discussion so far brings us to the point where we can confidently argue that the religious values in any society cannot be taken lightly and this intricate relation between religion and politics must be defined and refined in the context of a particular society. ‘Religious nationalism (collective identity), unlike the West where separation between Church and the State exist, is not alien to the formation of the modern nation state. Non-Western modern national identities and nationalist movements provide religious narrative and myth, symbolism and ritual in the case of Iran, India, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Sri Lanka and Israel.’ [11]<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Currently the nation state plays a crucial role in the world politics and its encounter with the religion has given birth, in some parts of the world, to a creation, in which religion has become the new ally of the nation state. The paper explains that the national identity crisis emerges because of the complex relationship between the state and the nation which is defined culturally, ethnically and more importantly religiously if we take the cases from the third world countries, some of which discussed above. The religion is a powerful instrument which creates a unifying force but it is not able to define completely the national identity. The functional role of religion can’t be denied sine it has the potential to solve the identity crisis. When a state fail to define national identity, when erosion of the power of the state occurs, and when the state is torn among different power groups, the state loses the ability to control the national identity crisis then religion comes into play to solve this dilemma of identity. It becomes easy for the religious elements to play the politics of the national consolidation when the state is incapacitated to create a unifying sense of national identity. The example of Pakistan and Israel clearly supports this notion. It is evident that this crisis exists because of the historical inability to separate religion from the national consolidation process in the developing nations. Hence it can be concluded that the politics of religion varies with social, economic and political conditions of a country making an attempt to choose among progressive, liberal and conservative.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s1600/stages-of-grief.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="177" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhJxK8OqmW4rtdUdDADFyyL8ux0UtMlLaO761NfX11YHjH1eYxefNHFOT3rnlLkGTtWkFRI0_hPHfzalXMhonJ6Dqs1OvDdoQxLSg2l7guT90mJdeibgzGklgXcAnYADmPAHur4yx7GGS4/s200/stages-of-grief.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><div style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 24px; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; text-align: left; text-indent: 48px;"><b style="background-color: white; line-height: 200%; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><u style="margin: 0px; padding: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">About The Author</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; line-height: 200%;">: Hamid Khan is a an alumni of Lahore University of Management Sciences. He received his Master's degree in Economics from LUMS. His areas of interest includes economics and social science. He can be reached at <b>2hmdKhan(at-the-rate)gmail.com</b></span>..</span> </div></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-82695223092601934702012-05-02T17:11:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.494-07:00Evolution Of Communication Technology - Russia Vs US<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-indent: 0.5in;"></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYnsmMeHbxFcBzJF2RavcoraxeiZc0YSpQ5LEMKbDZPZJeJAyohIYIgMmlTxKLfobvriWgn25DERv2HBVsZdT2wLnjTq9vncPYSbBFbaavPNG2MjgAOs-yp_65ouBJXCs_MaqE0CDghgI/s1600/info_ethics1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="284" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgYnsmMeHbxFcBzJF2RavcoraxeiZc0YSpQ5LEMKbDZPZJeJAyohIYIgMmlTxKLfobvriWgn25DERv2HBVsZdT2wLnjTq9vncPYSbBFbaavPNG2MjgAOs-yp_65ouBJXCs_MaqE0CDghgI/s320/info_ethics1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The phenomena of globalization have its underpinning through advanced communication technology and quick transportation facilities. This paper aims to discuss the evolution of communication technology with a comparative perspective taking United States and Russia as examples. The intuition to study the evolution of communication technology of these two countries is derived from the fact that they are significantly different in the state structure and their respective interests vis-à-vis each other. Both have been involved in a cut-throat competition for advanced technology during the cold war, and improved communication technology bears no exception. These two countries have made huge investments in the development of communication technology and have actively sought policies aimed to achieve the said objectives. Both countries have different political and social setups which make them very viable to compare and contrast between the aspects of communication technology pursued by these two countries. Internet, communication, cyber-security and digital broadcasting are among the top-notch issues between Moscow and Washington. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Case of United States:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Communication technology owes its evolution to four important factors in the United States. These are summed up as (1) drive to digitize the communication process (2) through a focused purpose of consolidating the information (3) fastened by the deregulation process and (4) demanded by the process of globalization<w:sdt citation="t" id="629091"> (Hamelink 1996)</w:sdt>. These trends have gained importance in 1980 and have increased in their significance ever since. The process of digitization has helped spread information across border especially in electronic formats, increased technological integration, promoting deregulation and reinforcing the process of globalization.</span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Development of the communication technology of United States is marked by two different epochs which characterize seemingly contradicting ideals. One the one hand, the media industry is becoming excessively commercialized. The process of privatization has gained increased ascendancy during the 1980’s and 1990’s. Only few corporations control the communication technology and media. This rampant commercialization poses a major challenge to the capacity of the communication technology and media to generate a democratic political culture. The arena of information technology is powered by few giants purportedly supporting the “dominant ideology”<w:sdt citation="t" id="629092"> (Abercrombie, Hill & Turner 1980)</w:sdt>. However on the other hand, increasing accessibility and the ease of communication through internet poses a serious threat to the states capability to watch over the communication flow. Advanced computing capabilities and digital communication technology seriously undermines the traditional hierarchical manner through which a state a screen the data flow. Internet provides very cheap, global, interactive and mass communication capabilities which couldn’t be fathomed even a decade ago. It is aptly described as “functioning anarchy”.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">United States experience of these two opposing trends brings the fundamental question of the extent to which the communication technology can develop to override anti-democratic implications of the media marketplace. United States has allowed corporate control of communication allowing for the decentralized technological possibilities. Deregulation of communication services has triggered the process of privatization in this sector. State has withdrawn from the control of communication technology. The first period of privatization started in 1950s in the United States. However to protect consumer interests, regulatory bodies were formed which demanded far-ranging changes in the rules governing communication technology. AT & T, the American top notch telecommunication company was broken in to 22 small companies free to choose between areas of business. However there is a need for public participation in the communication policy-making, using non-marketing mechanisms to achieve socially acceptable goals. Since the new technological developments have intrinsic democratic bias, their public control should not be priority. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Few authors believe that communication technology policies in United State have only superficially democratic outlook belying the control of few interest groups. Corporate conglomerates in the communications sectors rarely bother to care about the interest of those affected. The communication system is tailored to meet the interests of few. Private concentration and commercialization are rarely good answers for democracy. For e.g. taking the example of television, few corporations are permitted to control the medium for the purpose of maximizing profits, realized through selling advertisements time. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Revolution in communication technology with the advent of internet has gained increased pace. Communication media have been reconfigured, process being accompanied by information superhighway and interactive computing. However this has not changed the fundamental dynamic of the evolution of communication technology. Corporate control and profit motives still continue to define the communication technology landscapes. Though traditional broadcasting and newspapers agencies are being pushed to the edge of bankruptcy, few entities have re-vitalized their business through a re-orientation to the digital world. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The case of Russia:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Unlike its arch-rival, communication technology in Post-communist Russia is old. The telecommunication sector has adversely being affected from the lack of investment post the break-down of Soviet Union. One reason quoted for this trend has been the less willingness of the Russian state to invest in less tangible asset. The role of communication technology in the uplifting of National economy has been under-appreciated. Actual hardware framework of the communication technology was given more importance at the cost of effectiveness. Given the socialist inclination of the state, communication technology have been developed with public access in mind. Profitability for private business motive to drive technological innovation has been curbed. Driven by increasing equity, state has been obsessed with keep prices artificially high. The infrastructure of telephone lines, quality of digital network, number of personal computer and all other key indicators are lagging behind the western countries. Communication technologies which are capable of large scale impacts are controlled by military. These include telecommunication and printing press. Whereas small technologies for e.g. faxes, cassettes and e-mails are beyond the state control. However, succumbing to the global pressures of transparency, much of the state control is being given up by the state. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Achievement of an efficient level of development in the communication technology has been hampered by inappropriate taxing mechanism. Thuggery and corruption have added to the worst factors impacting the development. Besides the development of communication technology has been premised around centralized control. Centralized control produces large scale inefficient technology. The scale of operation in communication technology makes it difficult to cope with the small scale operations. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Development of communication technology has been slow in Russia when compared to United States. The trend can be explained through following reasons<w:sdt citation="t" id="32512387"> (Rantanen 2002)</w:sdt><w:sdt citation="t" id="32512388"> (2 n.d.)</w:sdt>:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">1.)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Russian economy grew at a slower pace after the breakup of Soviet Union. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">2.)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Russian centralized communication technology networks were incompatible with that of decentralized communication technology demands of the other countries.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">3.)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Foreign companies were barred from making overture in the Russian communications technology landscape. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">4.)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ministry of communication given the sole authority to monopolize the sector. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .75in; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-indent: -.25in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">5.)<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Organization of the internet network was premised to be centralized, in an inherent contradiction to the nature of internet. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><br /></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Conclusion:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Because of the neo-liberal political landscape and capitalistic inclinations, Communication technology in United State have developed along the format of private-owned, decentralized control. The invisible hand is expected to guard the interests of the public maximizing efficiency of the system. The dynamics of the system has made it susceptible to corporate control by few conglomerates. This belies an authoritarian control purporting “dominant ideology” beneath a superficial outlook of democratic nature. In contrast, Russia has more centralized control over its communication technology. This has led to poor growth in the development of communication technology. As a result, Russia lags in communication technology development. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyXFoluHFxZNnoTXdTcYWcoxKtg9dizNCs4009699VPwhc4Lt583VslRto-xf-sRF2HTbWB0qmX-Tn-GAWFRy-dTtOHeJGApDRPJukMWW4OveRdzg06gic4-snbzluJvd7naCjTppsGF4/s1600/stages-of-grief.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="178" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjyXFoluHFxZNnoTXdTcYWcoxKtg9dizNCs4009699VPwhc4Lt583VslRto-xf-sRF2HTbWB0qmX-Tn-GAWFRy-dTtOHeJGApDRPJukMWW4OveRdzg06gic4-snbzluJvd7naCjTppsGF4/s200/stages-of-grief.jpg" width="200" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><u style="margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-top: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color: red; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">About The Author</span></u></b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12px;">: Hamid Khan is a an alumni of Lahore University of Management Sciences. He received his Master's degree in Economics from LUMS. His areas of interest includes economics and social science. He can be reached at <b>2hmdKhan(at-the-rate)gmail.com</b></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-17813975564863219642012-04-30T23:15:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.494-07:00The vital characteristics that allowed Western civilization to outpace Muslim civilization in the development of science in the modern period<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:TrackMoves/> <w:TrackFormatting/> <w:PunctuationKerning/> <w:ValidateAgainstSchemas/> <w:SaveIfXMLInvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:IgnoreMixedContent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:DoNotPromoteQF/> <w:LidThemeOther>EN-US</w:LidThemeOther> <w:LidThemeAsian>X-NONE</w:LidThemeAsian> <w:LidThemeComplexScript>X-NONE</w:LidThemeComplexScript> <w:Compatibility> 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QFormat="true" Name="TOC Heading"/> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-priority:99; mso-style-qformat:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman","serif";} </style> <![endif]--> <div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;">It takes generations for civilizations to rise and recede. History reveals that every civilization has confronted rise as well as decline. Over the past few decades there has been a vigorous debate over the issue of factors responsible for the development or fall of a civilization. On one side some philosophers and scientists like J. Brownowski, Carl Sagan, and Bernard Lewis have completely attributed advancement of a civilization to intellectual learning based on empirical evidence and rationality, while on the other hand scholars like SH Nasr and Ali Allawi have urged the importance of religious science and spiritual beliefs. There has been insurgence of orthodoxy at some time while there have also been revolts against orthodoxy and fundamentalism, like the rise of Mutazillites in the 8<sup>th</sup> century. </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;">In my view, religious orthodoxy and adherence to Islamic principles, tradition and norms and scientific underdevelopment were the causes of the decline of Muslims. On one hand where West was making scientific progress and technological development and made rationality prior to everything in inquisition and learning, and was rushing forward in the field of science and technology, the Muslims suspected philosophy and equated secular knowledge with heresy as they were against the notion of rationality and for them God possessed the utmost authority and was regulating the entire universe. There was no room for questioning the popular beliefs of religion. So this fatalistic attitude against rational inquiry and lack of curiosity for learning secular knowledge made it harder for any intellectual advance to occur in the Muslim society.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>In my paper I will critically analyze the downfall of the Muslims and present my arguments based on historical evidences to show how the Muslim civilization, which was once on the peak of success, stumbled and started declining because of its reluctance to acquire modern knowledge which in my view is contingent upon every civilization to acquire for economic prosperity as well as political power. I will first discuss the Western history, their dark ages and then their up rise and advancement in the field of technology after the Renaissance and will present my arguments to show how both of these civilizations encountered and responded to the clash between empirical enquiry and popular beliefs of the religion.</div><a name='more'></a><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>If we analyze the Western history, we will come to know that before renaissance the Christian civilization has also encountered the same dilemma. Traditionally the Church possessed the ultimate authority and there was no room for questioning the doctrine and preaching of the Holy Church. It suppressed all teaching which was not in conformity with its preaching. For instance the incident of a dead scientist, Wycliffe whose bones were dug out and broken to pieces, as quoted by Pervez Hoodbhoy. (hoodbhoy, 1991, 25). Another instance which revealed the absolute authority of church was of Galileo, as presented by J. Brownowski. The question here arises that why was Church opposed to rationality and emergence of new ideas and what were the reasons of Church’s unyielding attitude? In my opinion the Church enjoyed its authority and was opposed to new ideas and rational thinking because of certain facts including observance of rules for every matter of life led down by church and unquestionable acceptance of church dogmas and was afraid of the threat posed by free thinking and empirical based enquiry as these factors could challenge its authority. Carl Sagan also presents the incident of destruction of Alexandria in pursuing the same stance. Apart from that the Church also rejected the notion of cause and effect and believed that every good happening is a reward from God and attributed natural disasters and diseases to punishments sent by God on sinful acts and work of demons. For that reason they discouraged the study of medicine and other sciences, as Hoodbhoy quotes Saint Augustine saying, “all diseases of Christians to be ascribed to demons.” (hoodbhoy, 1991, 27). Hoodbhoy also argues that “the church was not only the guardian of Christian soul, but also of his physical well being.” Hoodbhoy also presents a number of beliefs and doctrines of the church including,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">Attack on doctrine of sphericity of earth and antipodes by theologians,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">Reddening of water was taken as indication of God’s wrath,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">Comets were viewed as fireballs flung by an angry God,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;">Thunderbolt was in consequence for five sins. (Hoodbhoy, 1991, 27-29)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"> In short the Church was congested with cluster of mythologies and misbelieves during its early ages. The church continued to exercise its authority for almost ten centuries.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>In early 16<sup>th</sup> century a drastic transformation took place in Christian civilization as an attempt to reform the Catholic Church, in the form of Protestant reformation. Martin Luther, a German monk, in 1517 rose against some beliefs of Roman Catholic about the authority of Pop and Bible and salvation. They opposed Catholic Church’s doctrines of office and authority of pop, authority of Bible, and salvation. The Protestants came up with two doctrines known as Sola scriptura: the Bible is the final source for authority, and Sola fide: salvation comes by faith alone. (What is the difference…)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: .5in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; text-indent: 0.5in;"> In the late 15<sup>th</sup> and early 16<sup>th</sup> century, Europe started a gradual pushing back against the stranglehold of the unitary Catholic Church. It was at that time when came the Renaissance. The freedom of thought gradually started gaining ground and age of reason was begun. The unleashing of sciences started with it bringing in better technology and advancement. It was then followed by the Industrial Revolution in 19<sup>th</sup> century, as Bronowski also mentions that it was not only an economic revolution but also a social revolution. I think this was where the West was super ceding and gained an upper hand. According to Mirza A Baig, “The 15th century saw intellectual awakening in Europe now known as ‘the renaissance’. The writings of Arab scientists and philosophers were translated in European languages…” (Decline of Islamic…)</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>So historical evidences tell us that in pursuing advancement in science, West prioritized reason and rationality and by doing so they questioned each and every theory which came under their way and sought empirical evidence to answer that, and in my view that was the time when the upsurge of their civilization occurred and they started progressing. But now if we consider the history of Muslims, it is revealed to us that in the early ages Muslims, Islam spread very fast, and for many centuries Islam was in the forefront of human civilization and achievement. The era between 8<sup>th</sup> and 11<sup>th</sup> century is known as “The Golden Age” of Muslims. J Brownowski also admires the Muslim civilization and their development in medicine, architecture, philosophy and mathematics in his documentary. In that period Muslim civilization progressed with leaps and bounds. It produces a tremendous amount of great Muslim scholars like Al-Khawarzmi, Bu Ali Sina, Ibn Esa, Al Farabi who are still regarded as the pioneers of science. Pervez Hoodbhoy also quotes George Sarton and a scientific journal Nature in which similar remarks about the glorious golden age of Muslims have been presented. (hoodbhoy, 1991, 102). Here question arises that if science was progressing in that era, what factors resulted in decline of Muslims? And what led to the difference in the attitude of Muslims towards science after the Golden Age? </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>I think there are a number of reasons responsible for the downfall of the Muslims including reluctance in pursuance of technological development, the attitude of ruling dynasty, rejection of science and lack of curiosity for learning and advances in thought. But in my opinion all these factors emerge from one single cause which is religious orthodoxy and strict adherence to religious doctrines. Ali Allawi quotes Shakib Arsalan who in his series of articles in a journal titled Why Muslims are Backward and why Others have Progressed also argues that “the main causes of Islamic decline were the Muslim unwillingness to take initiative, be proactive and the absence of intellectual creativity (ijtihad) within the Islamic world” (rise and decline…). In response to the issue of the difference of the attitude of Muslims towards science, I personally agree to the view of modernist-reconstructionist Muslims who credited the past scientific achievement to the harmony between Islam and science, in contrast to orthodox-restorationists who claimed that the glory needs restoration of Shariah only (hoodbhoy, 1991, 104). Here it can be argued that scientific development took place in the early Muslim ages because they were not against science, or in other words they took science and developed harmony between science and theology. In their view religion was never against study of science and they assert that seven hundred and fifty verses of Quran exhort believers to study nature and pursue modern science. A hadith of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) can also be quoted here according to which it is the duty of every Muslim to seek knowledge.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"> I would like to quote Bernard Lewis here who, in his famous book “what went wrong” claims that Christianity separates the church from the state, but Islam does not. Instead, it teaches Muslims to apply scripture to the real world (Lewis, 2002). I think this is where the orthodoxy started building up its support and growing its roots. They took religious belief and doctrines as the ultimate authority and instead of looking for some rational arguments and empirical evidences; they rejected all the notions of science which challenged the popular beliefs. The decline of sciences in Islamic culture was synchronic with the upsurge of religiosity which made the existence of secular pursuits ossified. For instance in early ages of Muslim history, there raised three sects collectively known as Jabria, who believed in the doctrine of predestination and claimed that every event and action was the act of God. Not only had they considered the economic and political incidents as acts of fate, for them the brutal incidents like that of slaying of Imam Hussain in the battle of Karbala was also an act of inexorable fate, as mentioned by Hoodbhoy (hoodbhoy, 1991, 117). Although there emerged a movement against orthodoxy by Mutazillites led by Wasil Ibn Ata, who strongly believed in the doctrine of free will and reconciliation of faith and reason, but was banished because of use of repression by their rulers, as Hoodbhoy quotes the example of Al Mamun who persecuted all such qazis and ulema who refused to testify to the doctrine of Quran’s creation (hoodbhoy, 1991, 120). Also they gave primacy to reason over revelation. So it was soon banished resulting in the strike back of orthodoxy as people strongly supported the religious opposition against them by Imam Hanbal.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%;"><span> </span>Another important factor which led to the decline was rejection of science on the basis that it goes against Islamic faith and belief. All the sciences including geometry, astronomy and philosophy were rejected on the same grounds and the people who practiced them were condemned as heretic. Hoodbhoy also presents quite a few examples representing these incidents, for instance:</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;">Considering ullum ul awail as ulum ul mahjura (repudiated sciences),</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;">Banning of copying of books of philosophy in Baghdad,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;">Burial of books of Abdus Salam,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;">Khwarizm Shah reporting astronomy as pure heresy,</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in;"> Apart from all these anti rational views, they also refused to accept the connection between cause and effect and had firm belief that God is solely responsible for everything. For instance the Asharite dogma and also Al Ghazali’s theology, according to which God is directly responsible for the cause of all physical events, and constantly intervenes in the worldly affairs. Hoodbhoy also quotes Al Ghazali who reckons philosophers such as Ibn Sina and Al Farabi as unbelievers (Hoodbhoy, 1991, 127). The burning of cotton in Ghazali’s view was also an act of God and couldn’t happen without His intervention. A similar example has also been presented by Iysa Bello who quotes Ghazali’s belief on God’s knowledge of the particulars according to which “God knows the eclipse and all its attributes and accidents through an unchangeable knowledge which is His eternal attribute” (bello, 1989,113).</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in;"><span> </span>An important factor which in my opinion played a havoc role in reforming the attitude of Muslims towards intellectual learning and securing western science was the attitude of West towards undeveloped nations after the Renaissance. Throughout the history, the relationship between Islam and West had been of a qualitatively different form. There had been times of fruitful collaboration as well as eras of fierce wars and violence like battle of Crusades and Ottoman domination of Balkans. So Muslims had always seen West with eyes of suspicion. After the renaissance, the birth of modern science took place. The former feudal system was replaced by the capitalist system and mystical universe turned to mechanical. But then West used this power endowed by science as a weapon and started subjugating and colonizing the less developed nations. Here the Muslims viewed West as a great threat to their civilization and strongly denounced each and every aspect of their life including culture, economic system, educational system. For instance the British, who came to India for trade but then ended up colonizing the whole sub continent bringing it under their power in the 19<sup>th</sup> century. Faced with the brutal onslaught of mercantile imperialism, the Muslims who ruled India for many ceturies couldn’t digest their defeat and rose against them. They rejected their language, culture and even education which for Muslims was the need of that time as Hindus were progressing in advancement. At that moment the rationalists like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started his campaign known as Ali Garh Tehreek and urged the importance of modern education. But the reluctance of Muslims to learn modern education served as a major portion of their decline and they preferred adhering to their moral values and tradition.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span> </div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.25in;"> Summing up all my arguments, I would like to conclude here by saying that there were quite a number of factors responsible for their decline including their anti rationalistic approach towards intellectual learning and modern science, the hesitancy and lack of curiosity towards practical knowledge, and adherence to tradition and faith with unquestionable authority. I presented my arguments to show how the Christian civilization confronted the same situation when Church was the absolute authority, and then how they progressed by prioritizing rationality and empirical enquiry in learning. But in contrast the Muslims, who were on the peak of success in early ages and made remarkable progress in the fields of philosophy, arts and other sciences, unfortunately turned their back towards modern knowledge and rationality and gave priority to religious belief and faith, and as a consequence started declining. In the end I would conclude by urging that keeping in view the devastation caused to Muslims by this anti rational attitude, it is the very need of the day to transform our mindset, because it is only modern knowledge which can bring development and advancement in the technology.</div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .25in;"><br /></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-30485970571905362272012-04-29T19:15:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.494-07:00Ethnic Nationalism as a Façade for Class Exploitation: the case of the Pashtun Nationalist Struggle<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwoWpVdofQvHVSe4qXZklec2YcTwAR5D7nq4m4DcmCVGX69yKaNTZygHc4Ha2c7yoiDv5XmkcGoZywlW4NA8Dnp7qvMDtYqk3yunW55wPXVJreFVHPq3xood-MHe3HEyAUkfMDW7OoFZo/s1600/Pashtun-Ethnic-Map1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="307" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgwoWpVdofQvHVSe4qXZklec2YcTwAR5D7nq4m4DcmCVGX69yKaNTZygHc4Ha2c7yoiDv5XmkcGoZywlW4NA8Dnp7qvMDtYqk3yunW55wPXVJreFVHPq3xood-MHe3HEyAUkfMDW7OoFZo/s320/Pashtun-Ethnic-Map1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pakistan has been prey to strong ethnic and sectarian divides since its inception. The politics of ethnic nationalism has been used to disguise the exploitative class structure and this paper explores the case of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in this regard. The politics of ethnicity has scarred national integration and solidarity. As politics has mainly remained the domain of the elite, the slogan of ethnicity has been raised time and again to perpetuate the existing political structure and class inequality. The case of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is no different. The Pashtuns are a historic race who takes pride in its bravery, hospitality and heroism. This strong cultural tradition and affiliation only to one’s own ethnicity and tribe should have faded over the years somewhat with the influence of modernity. However, this was not the case. This strong allegiance continued and the role of the tribal Sardars and the ruling class is crucial in this. It is always essential for the ruling class to maintain the status quo, since that is what perpetuates and strengthens their control. In order to achieve this goal they use the slogan of ethnicity to distract people from the real economic and social disparities that confront them. This is precisely what the nationalist leaders of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have done in the name of the Pashtun nationalist struggle. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> According to Lenin on Marxist ideas about nationalism:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">“Throughout the world, the period of the final victory of capitalism over feudalism has been linked up with national movements. For the complete victory of commodity production, the bourgeoisie must capture the home market, and there must be politically united territories whose population speak a single language … Therein is the economic foundation of national movements.” (Lenin). <o:p></o:p></span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Marxist point of view believes nationalism to be a capitalist construct created by the bourgeoisie in order to detract the masses from the real issue of class exploitation that they are facing. For Marx the proletariat are a community in their own who are not subject to national boundaries but it is imperative for them to recognize their class exploitation as a whole. In much of the third world “nationalism” was used to mobilize the masses against colonial rule. In the case of Pakistan as well, the ruling dominant party was the Muslim League which consisted mainly of the landed class. However the concept of a separate state for the Muslims without Hindu subjugation and with equal economic and social opportunity seemed very attractive for the masses that ended up supporting the Muslim League. However once the new state was formed the ruling elites entered the spheres of state and nation building and the idea of equal economic opportunity proved to be an elusive dream for the vast majority of Pakistanis. In essence the elite bourgeoisie not only directly affect the lives of the masses through means of the market forces and means of production which they control but also indirectly affect the way the masses perceive their own reality. This is identified by Marx as “false consciousness”. Through the disguise of ideology the ruling class in reality serves its own vested interest and manipulates the lower classes into believing that their progress lies in uniting under the flag of ethnic nationalism.</span></div><a name='more'></a><o:p></o:p><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">When we apply the above mentioned dynamics to the case of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, it transpires that the same is true for this enigmatic Western Frontier. Wali Khan at one occasion made a historical statement that has been quoted by ANP supporters till today. According to him :<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">“I have been a Pakistani for the last 40 years, a Muslim for 1300 years and a Pashtun for 400 years.”(Khan).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The above statement is a prime example of rhetoric used for manipulating masses to believe that their escape lies only in uniting on ethnic grounds. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Although the overall social structure of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa is much like the rest of Pakistan, certain differences exist. Tribal “jirgas” form an important part of state machinery in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Even at the eve of partition the Governor of NWFP consulted the tribal elders on the issue of “Pakhtunistan”. The elders of the village not only made decisions on behalf of the tribes but also had the agency to call the “Lashkar” (Stewart). The importance of “Jirgas” cannot be ignored as even today they stand unchallenged hence the lives of ordinary people depend to a great deal on the tribal elders and leaders. The British Raj played almost the same card in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa as they did in Punjab and other areas of the subcontinent. The big “Khans” were given huge tracts of land on which they exercised considerable social and economic control. Below them were the small “Khans” who owned smaller landholdings and also were not the direct favorites of the British (Banerjee). Therefore a class conflict in the society of Khyber Pakhtunkwa was bound to evolve entailing control in the hands of the aristocracy and marginalizing the peasantry. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">After the creation of Pakistan, over time the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (known as NWFP before 2010) began its own nationalist struggle on the grounds, that for the Pashtun race Pakistan was a secondary identity and that their ethnicity was the foremost source of identity and affiliation. Much like the Muslim masses of the subcontinent, the Pashtun masses of Pakistan have been made to believe that their salvation lies in attaining self determination and in the ideology of ethnicity that is promoted by these nationalist leaders. The Awami National Party (ANP) has been the single most important voice of the Pashtun nationalist struggle since independence. The party has come a long way from before partition under the auspices of Bacha Khan and the “Red Shirts”. The “Red Shirts” or the “Khudai Khidmatgar” party in essence was a non violent anti colonial movement that wanted to rid the subcontinent of the British Raj (Sufi). It is noteworthy that over the years the movement has evolved a great deal and is now one of the mainstream political parties in Pakistan; however the class element among the party leadership remains quite the same. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The Red Shirts were lead by Abdul Ghaffar Khan who wanted “Pakhtunistan” - a separate homeland for the Pashtun race. He came from a family of aristocratic landowners. At the time of independence in 1947, majority of the Red Shirts voted against Pakistan as according to their demands the referendum should have had an option of voting for “Pakhtunistan” (Ahmed). After independence, the Red Shirts elected Abdul Ghaffar Khan as their party President. Initially in 1958 with the imposition of martial law the party suffered a setback however later came together in 1964. Throughout much of the next decade the party adopted a socialist ideology and consisted of leaders from both wings of Pakistan demanding provincial autonomy (Rashiduzzaman). Later in 1986 the Awami National Party emerged along with other ethnic nationalist groups, and elected Asfandyar Wali Khan as the chairperson. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Abdul Ghaffar Khan belonged to the Muhammadzai clan which is a sub division of the Abdali or Durrani tribe. Ahmed Shah Abdali was the founder of the state of Afghanistan so in essence the Muhammadzai clan is one of the royal dynasties of Afghanistan. The close association of this family’s nationalist politics to the politics of Afghanistan can therefore be attributed to this link. According to the Marxist conception of the Asiatic mode of production, land was allotted to “jagirdars” for raising revenue for the state. After the introduction of the Permanent Settlement Act, the “jagirs” became private property. Furthermore, the Indians who had helped the British in the mutiny of 1857 were rewarded a great deal. The case of Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s father Bahram Khan falls under this category. He extended his support to the British in the mutiny and as a result got awarded acres of land which later became his personal “jagir”. Nevertheless Abdul Ghaffar Khan involved himself in an anti colonialist struggle and went ahead to mobilize the masses against the foreign rulers. Nevertheless, when viewed closely it is evident that throughout his movement the interests of the Muhammadzai clan elites were always accounted for (Ahmed). More so he never raised the slogan of land reforms or anti feudalism as land is the principle means of exercising political, social and economic control in the rural areas of Pakistan especially. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The introduction of the ‘One Unit’ plan, in 1955, developed anguish among the smaller provinces of West P</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">akistan. This lead to the formation of the National Awami Party (NAP) which was a conglomeration of individuals from various political and ideological leanings all demanding provincial autonomy and representation. The overall tilt of the party was anti imperialist especially opposing the inclusion of Pakistan’s entry into defense agreements with the United States. Although the political ground realities had changed to an extent however Wali Khan, the son of Abdul Ghaffar Khan, decided to continue his father’s political heritage. Hence the idea of “Pashtoonistan” was not completely washed out of the picture. Cold war politics was at its peak at that time and he used the appeal of socialism to prove his anti imperialist stance and to gain support from the USSR. They portrayed themselves as a progressive bourgeoisie who was fighting for the rights of the oppressed proletariat against the imperialist and centralist state (Ahmed).</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> If viewed in contrast to the other nationalist struggles for provincial autonomy and representation of language, the Pashtun struggle cannot compare on equal footing. Unlike the Bengalis they were never able to forward the cause of their language as they did not form a majority in the overall population. Although the centralist tendencies of the state did impose Punjabi-Mohajir dominance, it is evident that the leadership of the Pashtoonistan struggle simply wanted to regain their past hegemony. The people of the province had voted in favor of Pakistan with a majority. The creation of the state of Pakistan was to harm the Pashtun elitist leadership the most. Many of the powers previously exercised by the tribal leaders and landlords now became the domain of the state. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> When considering the case of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa it is essential to realize that the Pashtun bourgeoisie consist of landed as well as industrial families. The three major capitalist families are the Hotis, the Khataks and the Khanzadas. These families were also part of the 22 famous families of Ayub Khan’s era which controlled the majority of Pakistan’s financial assets. Much of their financial capital is invested in sugar mills. These capitalists can easily associate with other capitalists in Pakistan on the basis of shared interest and material welfare. They are aware of the fact that economic links with the rest of the country are crucial to their survival as it provides the chunk of the market demand for their sugar. The Pashtun capitalists have also invested in other industries such as pharmaceutical and textiles (Ahmed). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The interests of the petty bourgeoisie and the urban middle class of Pashtuns have always been in line with integration with the rest of the country’s economy. The Pashtuns have dominated the transport business in the country especially in Punjab and Sindh. The migration of Pashtun workers to these urban centers has provided them with employment opportunities and has enabled them to send back remittances home to their province (Ahmed). So much so that this migration has caused ethnic violence in Karachi especially between the Pashtuns, Mohajirs and Sindhis who are all competing for employment and land. The Sindhis feel that their rights are being usurped by these foreign immigrants. On the other hand we do not find many examples of the Frontier hosting as many migrant workers from other parts of the country or in that case the vast majority of land and property in the Frontier is owned by the Pashtuns.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In order to establish the claim that much of the ethnic nationalism is lead by the elites and does not essentially hold mass support it is essential to consider the viewpoint of the peasantry as well. Statistics reveal that many evicted peasants from Khyber Pakhtunkwa ended up in urban centers of Punjab and Sindh specifically Karachi for alternative sources of employment (Ahmed). The peasants now have realized that the concept of “Pakhtunistan” would have entailed total control of the landlords over all means of production hence depriving the peasantry of any chances of education, employment etc. They have realized that tendencies towards national integration are in their best interest. This by no means implies that they are willing to give up their cultural and traditional values and practices; rather it implies that they accept that assimilation with the rest of the country and acceptance towards the social setup of other provinces will help them achieve economic progress and development. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The Green Revolution of the 1960s was a watershed event in increasing economic and class disparities in Pakistan targeting the peasants directly. Upon independence most of the peasants in Punjab and NWFP were involved in a sharecropping relationship. The Green Revolution in President Ayub Khan’s era introduced mechanized farming techniques and the use of HYV (High Yield Variety) seeds. The idea was to improve efficiency and to eradicate the parasitic relationship that existed between the landlord and the peasant in which the landlord was not responsible for the entire process of cultivation but was only interested in the final produce (Herring). However, this reform plan backfired, as on most middle and few large land holdings the use of tractors and tube wells rendered many of the peasants evicted from the land and unemployed (Alavi). The new techniques improved the yield and hence a large majority of peasants in the rural areas found themselves landless and searching for alternative employment. This lead to unrest followed by armed clashes as income disparities reached new heights. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The Pashtun proletariat in Karachi has on several events proven himself to be part of a class struggle against the capitalists as opposed to being involved in an ethnic struggle. The economic and social deprivation that he suffers at the hands of the capitalist makes him realize that it is more imperative to confront this class exploitation. The notorious slaughter of S.I.T.E workers in Karachi was a landmark event for the labor struggle in Pakistan. The ruling political bourgeoisie though at once subdued the unrest; however the event had far reaching effects throughout the country. The Pashtun peasants in Peshawar lead a protest and rally in order to express their solidarity with the innocent workers who had been killed. During the same year a group of peasants were involved in a fierce struggle with the landlords in Malakand when 14 other peasants from Mardan were arrested on the grounds of extending their support to the peasants of Malakand (Ahmed). This made them a part of a greater class struggle beyond the narrow bounds of ethnicity or province. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The urban and rural middle class of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa also do not share grievances on ethnic grounds as have been witnessed in the cases of Bengali or Sindhi nationalist movements. In Pakistan, the civil service and military are the major employers for the middle class. According to the government’s statistics, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa accounts for 13.40% of Pakistan’s population whereas they account for 22-25% of the military according to unofficial estimates (Rizvi, 199). This represents a more than proportionate representation of the Pashtuns in the army. A similar observation can be made about the civil service. Moreover employment in the military provides a valuable indication on the socio-economic reality of the Pashtun middle class. This is because defense expenditure forms the greatest chunk of Pakistan’s annual budget. Moreover the military as an institution is well grounded in Pakistan and hence provides people with fair chances of upward social mobility unlike most other institutions which have been riddled with corruption and have no marks of meritocracy left. Therefore the Pashtun middle class has no grievance against the military in terms of not getting an equal chance rather many other communities accuse the Punjabis and Pakhtuns of dominating the military and hence other organs of state machinery as well. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The last elections of 2008 once again saw the Awami National Party coming to power in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. They were welcomed once again as a breath of fresh air after the suppressive regime of MMA. Overall the country’s political situation took a turn as a democratically elected government came to the fore after a nine year long military dictatorship. One of the landmark measures that ANP was successful in taking was the change in name of the province to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Attaining a separate identity for the Pakhtuns and their province had long been on their agenda and this was finally achieved through the eighteenth amendment. However when examining their role within the past four years it appears that politically and economically their performance has been quite dismal. The politics of elitism was once again witnessed when Asfandyar Wali, named his nephew Ameer Haider Khan Hoti as the Chief Minister. Such an act in the presence of other senior and competent candidates such as Bashir Bilour was a golden example of the dynastic politics which is characteristic of the politics of not only ANP but also of most other mainstream parties of Pakistan. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The Chief Minister in 2009 explained that a massive reform in health, education and industry was one of the foremost goals of the ANP on attaining power. According to the United Nations assessment report the flash floods that hit Swabi District in 2009 created massive problems of food supplies and sanitation (UNDP). However the government was unable to bring the situation under control without the help of international agencies such as the United Nations. The catastrophic floods of 2010 were a classic example of failure on the part of the provincial government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa especially. The military had to step in with its resources in order to rescue people from the disaster (UNDP). The government’s steps have been insufficient and the plight of thousands of poor and helpless people continues. Furthermore to aggravate the situation, the international donor community has expressed serious skepticism on the efficient use of funds. The state apparatus is prey to corruption and the funds are not being used properly which is a big question mark for the government of ANP. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> On coming to power another major claim made by the ANP was to curb radicalism and hold dialogues with the militants in order to achieve peace in the region. However the police was often found inefficient and helpless and the vacuum left by them was filled by the Taliban. Incidents of Taliban taking over the sphere of law enforcement in the province indicate the failure of the government in its promise of providing law and order and security to the public. The Chief Minister of the province also claimed to build underpasses, major hospitals, Burn and Trauma center of Peshawar and provision of clean drinking water however ground realities are quite murky ( ANP). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> On its agenda of eradicating illiteracy and lack of awareness, the government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa faced another setback recently. In August 2011, the anti polio drive carried out in the province failed to produce the desired results as a vast majority of parents refused to get their children vaccinated. This percentage was mainly to be found in areas with lower literacy rates where parents were misconstrued into believing that vaccinations might render their children infertile or impotent. The United Nations has expressed concern over this alarming trend as it is arising out of many of the relatively peaceful areas in the province (Dawn News). This establishes the fact that the government despite carrying out the drive has failed to take necessary measures in order for the drive to be successful. The masses with low rates of literacy need to be made aware of issues concerning their own health and betterment but the government’s role is nowhere to be found in this regard. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">A close examination of the Awami National Pary’s rule shows that they ended up preferring the politics of expediency over their claimed politics of nationalist struggle. An example of elitist politics in the ANP was when Wali Khan awarded a ticket to Ghulam Farooque for a seat in the National Assembly. Ghulam Farooque was one of the architects of the industrialization of the era of the 1960s which resulted in increasing disparities and depriving the Frontier of its rightful share in Pakistan’s development (Ahmed).The leadership though itself belonged to the landed class and the bourgeoisie, adopted leftist and socialist leanings in order to forward its cause of Pashtun nationalism. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The overall economic conditions of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa have never been appreciable. The central government has always been accused of neglecting Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and lack of development plays an important role in shaping the minds of the people. According to the Bureau of Statistics, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa the literacy ratio for the province is 37.26 %. The situation in the tribal belt is even more appalling with a literacy ratio as low as 17.42%. Despite this the provincial government has allocated only 6.04% of the revenue expenditure for education (Federal Bureau of Statistics). Overall a low rate of education means that the masses are more prone to the rhetoric of ideology and ethnic nationalism. The lack of exposure means the people readily accept the claims of the Awami National Party.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Supporters of “Pashtun” nationalism argue that this ideology cannot simply be brushed aside by arguments regarding class cleavages. It is essential to look into history to view the various ethnic nationalist struggles that have taken place in this land. The British Raj experienced numerous tribal insurgencies from the Pashtuns. The Faqir of Ipi’s revolt is an example of one such struggle. He was a man of good repute and saintly demeanor however was only able to mobilize a small force to fight against the British. Despite inadequate supplies and overall asymmetrical capability against the British army, Faqir Ipi’s force fought with valor and bravery. The Pashtuns gathered under his umbrella to fight foreign intervention and with the hope of maintaining the purity of their land and race. However it is noteworthy that the tribes of the area always found it impossible to unite. Apart from their differences and feuds, another reason for the lack of support to Faqir Ipi’s movement was the fact that the British secured the loyalties of many of the tribal leaders by giving them financial subsides. This provides analysis into the class structure of the area. It suited the tribal lords to admit allegiance to the British Raj when they were provided with financial incentives that kept the control in their hands (Talbot). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Another historical example of Pashtun resistance are the Anglo Afghan wars. These wars must be analyzed from the viewpoint of the Pashtun race as resistant not only to foreign military invasions but also to the cultural change brought about by outside powers. The first Anglo Afghan war especially has been considered one of the worst defeats for the British army leaving them with only one survivor (Eliot). The wars took place as part of the larger phenomenon of the “Great Game” which was a tussle between the Russian and British empires for influence in Afghanistan. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> Ethnic identity throughout the world is one of the strong notions of affiliation. Several movements and struggles have taken place in the name of ethnic nationalism. In some cases such as East Pakistan, they have produced the desired outcomes. In other cases however they continue to be futile. Although the socio economic and cultural realities of every community differ nevertheless all such movements share certain characteristics and all aim to achieve autonomy and identity. Pakistan in its initial years had to deal with Bengali separatism until finally in 1971 the two wings of Pakistan parted ways. The Bengalis too were promised an elusive dream of self identity and equal economic opportunity and an escape from the colonial hegemony exercised by West Pakistan. However with the exception of the acceptance of Bengali as their national language, Bangladesh too has failed to achieve much. The post independence politics of Bangladesh too has been a victim to military dictatorships and dynastic elitist politics. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> The case of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Awami National Party presents a similar dilemma. The politics of pragmatism has caused the party to shift sometimes in favor of socialism and sometimes in favor of industrialization. What began as a non violent anti colonial struggle against oppression has over the years corrupted and become one of the many opportunistic political parties found in much of the third world. The flag of ethnic nationalism continues to win the ANP votes in most areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Low rates of literacy and lack of awareness has rendered the masses incapable of realizing that their elected representatives are in fact their exploiters. The masses need to realize that their freedom lies in confronting the class conflict which is existent not only in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa but in all parts of Pakistan. Uniting under the banner of ethnic nationalism will simply continue this process of exploitation and prevent them from achieving upward political, social and economic mobility. </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-align: center; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b>Works Cited </b><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ahmed, Feroz. <i>Ethnicity and Politics in Pakistan</i>. Karachi: Oxford UP, 1998. Print. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ahmed, Feroz. "Ethnicity Class and State in Pakistan." <i>Economic and Political Weekly</i> 31.47 (1996). <i>Www.jstor.org</i>. Economic and Political Weekly. Web. <<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/4404794">http://www.jstor.org/stable/4404794</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Ahmed, Feroz. "Pashtoonistan and the Pashtoon National Question." <i>Pakistan Forum</i> 3.12 (1973). <i>Www.jstor.org</i>. Middle East Research and the Information Project. Web. <<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2569059">http://www.jstor.org/stable/2569059</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Alavi, Hamza. "Elite Farmer Strategy and Regional Disparities in the Agricultural Development of Pakistan." <i>Economic and Political Weekly</i> 8.13 (1973). <i>Www.jstor.org</i>. Economic and Political Weekly. Web. <<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362483">http://www.jstor.org/stable/4362483</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Banerjee, Mukulika. <i>The Pathan Unarmed</i>. Karachi: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Bessler, Manuel, and Stephanie Bunker. <i>FLOODS IN NWFP PAKISTAN – 17 August 2009</i>. Rep. UNDP. Web. <<a href="http://oneresponse.info/Countries/Pakistan/publicdocuments/FLOOD_17August-2009.pdf">http://oneresponse.info/Countries/Pakistan/publicdocuments/FLOOD_17August-2009.pdf</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Elliot, J. G. <i>The Frontier 1839-1947</i>. London: Trinity, 1968. Print. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Federal Bureau of Statistics</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. Web. <<a href="http://www.khyberpakhtunkhwa.gov.pk/Departments/BOS/fatadevstat-educa-tab-74.php">http://www.khyberpakhtunkhwa.gov.pk/Departments/BOS/fatadevstat-educa-tab-74.php</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Herring, Ronald J. "Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and the "Eradication of Feudalism" in Pakistan." <i>Comparitive Studies in Society and History</i> 21.4 (1979). <i>Www.jstor.org</i>. Web. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/178694>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: 0.5in; text-align: justify; text-indent: -0.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.5in;">Rashiduzzaman, M. "The National Awami Party of Pakistan : Leftist Politics in Crisis." <i>Pacific Affairs</i> 43.37 (1970). <i>Www.jstor.org</i>. Pacific Affairs, University of British Colombia. Web. </span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.5in;"><</span><a href="http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=pacificaffairs" style="line-height: 200%; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.5in;">http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublication?journalCode=pacificaffairs</a><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.5in;">>.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Stewart, Jules. <i>The Savage Border The Story of the North West Frontier</i>. Gloucestershire: J.H Haynes and, 2007. Print. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Sufi, Juma Khan. <i>Bacha Khan, Congress and Nationalist Politics in NWFp</i>. Lahore: Vanguard, 2005. Print. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Talbot, Ian. "Waziristan, the Faqir of Ipi, and the Indian Army: The North West Frontier Revolt of 1936-37 by Alan Warren." <i>The American Historical Review</i> 106.4 (2001). <i>Www.jstor.org</i>. The University of Chicago Press. Web. <<a href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/2692976">http://www.jstor.org/stable/2692976</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">UNDP. "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Government and UNDP Release First Ever Millenium Development Goals Report." <i>Www.undp.org.pk</i>. UNDP. Web. <<a href="http://undp.org.pk/khyber-pakhtunkhwa-government-and-undp-release-first-ever-millennium-development-goals-report.html">http://undp.org.pk/khyber-pakhtunkhwa-government-and-undp-release-first-ever-millennium-development-goals-report.html</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Www.awaminationalparty.org</span></i><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">. Web. <<a href="http://awaminationalparty.org/main/archives/date/2010/06">http://awaminationalparty.org/main/archives/date/2010/06</a>>. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin-left: .5in; text-indent: -.5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Yusufzai, Ashfaq. "Anti-polio Drive in KP: Over 16,000 Refusal Cases Recorded in July." <i>Dawn News</i> [Peshawar] 4 Aug. 2011. Print. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; text-align: left; text-indent: -0.5in;">Rizvi, H.A (2001). “The military” in Gilani and Weiss (eds) Power and Civil Society in Pakistan. New York : OUP. Pp. 186-213</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> <o:p></o:p></span><br /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span><br /><span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><b><u>Written By: Chanel Khaliq</u></b></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-68995939523405650112012-04-29T18:54:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.494-07:00Change in ideology – from socialism to capitalism: the case of the Pakistan Peoples Party<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The guarantee of equal economic opportunity and an end to exploitation has long attracted the masses of underdeveloped countries - victims of poverty, inequality and despair. Pakistan’s case is no different. The wave of communism began when USSR adopted the Marxist-Leninist model and this lead to the creation of a new sphere of influence. Socialism began to be viewed by many countries as a respite from the unjust and exploitative capitalist system created by the West and the sway of modernity. It was Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto in Pakistan who raised the slogan of socialism and founded the Pakistan Peoples Party in 1968 (PPP). In his words:<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><i> “Socialism is of direct interest to Pakistan, an underdeveloped country, marked by internal and external exploitation” (Grover, 237).<o:p></o:p></i></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The party’s manifesto, that won them 81 seats in Parliament in the 1970 general elections, stated “Islam is our faith, democracy is our policy, socialism is our economy. All power to the People!” Clearly the beginnings of Pakistan Peoples Party had socialist and communist leanings (Chaudhry, 128). For them equality and justice could only be upheld if there was economic egalitarianism which was not possible if the capitalist system, in its existing form, continued. However, the 2008 manifesto which has brought PPP to power today, claims that “ social democracy is our economy” (PPP). It also mentions that the party will try to blend economic liberalism with state responsibility. Even if we consider the actual political situation today, we find no traces of the policies that PPP initiated under Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto. It is pertinent that even later governments of the PPP in the 1990s became allied to the United States and its capitalist policies to win support and to come to power. This paper will attempt to examine why socialism failed to achieve its intended goals in Pakistan causing an ideological shift of the PPP from being overtly in favor of socialism, to an acceptance of the capitalist system and ultimately joining the US block. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><a name='more'></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In its 1970 manifesto, the PPP identifies two major causes that have plagued Pakistan. Firstly the exploitative capitalist system and secondly, the fact that Pakistan is an underdeveloped country in the global world. In order to fulfill the claims to bring an end to the unjust economic system, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s government took a number of steps. As per their manifesto the PPP government began the nationalization of basic industries. The government would now control the affairs of 20 private firms worth $200 million (Kaushik, 226). The aim was to prevent the big entrepreneurs from accumulating surplus earnings in their own pockets and not compensating the laborer adequately. However, Bhutto left out the cotton textile manufacturing industry from his nationalization program which was incomprehensible, considering the fact that cotton crop is the backbone of Pakistan’s economy. Surendra Nath Kaushik contends that in reality major industrial tycoons and powers were excluded from this policy and so it appears that Bhutto did not want to challenge or upset their established financial control and took this measure as mere window dressing. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In order to live up to its status of being the voice of the working classes of Pakistan, the PPP introduced new labor laws. These included the effective participation of the workers in the management and the system of collective bargaining (Kaushik, 227). Bhutto’s education policies lead to the nationalization of private schools as he aimed to provide quality education for all. However, his most revolutionary step to hit the country was the Land Reform Measure. This reduced the ceilings on land from 500 to 150 acres of land on irrigated land and from 1000 to 300 acres on unirrigated land. (Kaushik, 228).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">On the whole, the economic measures taken by Bhutto’s regime bear a lot of semblance to the ten point agenda of The Communist Manifesto, especially in case of his education policy and the nationalization of key industries. These measures, however, failed to achieve much. The major reason was that Bhutto failed to curtail the power of the big businesses. Rather than a completely socialist economy, he opted for a mixed economy which favored more state control. Pakistan’s economy was dependent upon these big entrepreneurs for much of the development and creation of employment. This was also due to the fact that the government increased the defense budget, leaving less allocation for development projects (Kaushik, 243). Furthermore, the administrative system was a victim of red tapism and corruption. The Land Reform measures could not be implemented properly due to the dishonesty and issues related to bribery at the lower level, especially in the law enforcement agencies. Records were forged and transfer of land was made on paper to relatives etc, which failed to break the grip of the existing landed class (Malik, 92). In other words, the infrastructure that was required for the effective functioning of much of these socialist measures was not present. Moreover, the economic dependence of many of the ‘harees’ on the ‘jageerdaars’ in much of rural Pakistan prevented the landed aristocracy from abiding by the law. Much of the resulting economic disaster lead many circles to be critical of the actual implementation of socialist policies and whether they can produce results on ground or not.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Keeping in line with Leninist ideology on imperialism, Bhutto stood for state sovereignty. In his essay “Political Development in Pakistan” he talks about this concept and explains how Pakistan has always allied itself closely to the US and has been among the foremost to join SEATO and CENTO, but has, however, not benefitted. He disregards foreign aid when it comes with a compromise to state sovereignty (Grover, 250). This idea of self autonomy and resistance to foreign Western subjugation touched large sections of society. Bhutto exposed Pakistan’s vulnerable position in world politics, especially with relation to India and the United States. He was a strong supporter of improving relations with the Peoples Republic of China (Grover, 255). Nevertheless, it is debatable as to what extent Bhutto could live up to his anti-imperialist stance. After the 1971 fiasco Bhutto became obsessed with achieving armament parity with India. For this purpose, support from US would be crucial. However, when the US refused armament supply, Bhutto expressed his disapproval by withdrawing from SEATO. Under Nixon’s government, relations between the two states improved considerably over the issue (Kaushik, 204). Nonetheless, on the issue of nuclear proliferation, Bhutto’s strong standpoint is quite appreciable. Despite US warnings to stop Pakistan from purchasing nuclear technology, Bhutto went ahead with the project and in this regard he portrayed, although in limited capacity, Pakistan’s ability to make sovereign decisions in its own interest. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Right from its inception, Pakistan has been facing an identity crisis. Initially, Islam was taken to be a uniting force for the Muslims of the subcontinent that lead to the creation of Pakistan. Later, rifts began to develop not just on the basis of ethnicity but also the religious circles raised their voice demanding the implementation of Shariah. Iftikhar H. Malik, in his book “State and Civil Society in Pakistan”, refers to the contention between the ruling elite of Pakistan and the religious elite. Pakistan faced problems in defining a system for itself. Some of the clergy’s demands were fulfilled with the incorporation of the Objectives Resolution, although, issues on the basis of religion kept emerging (Malik, 51). However, this continuing variance made one thing absolutely clear; Pakistani politics could not be separated entirely from religion. Furthermore, if any doctrine or ideology was to make its place in Pakistan, it had to be compatible with Islam or else strong opposition would result from the Ulema. Although religious parties have not had a majority in the Parliament historically and the common people may not be practicing Muslims per se, the rhetoric of the Ulema has been instrumental in wooing public opinion of the masses against anyone who threatens the rule or principles of Islam. This is why all governments in Pakistan till today have not parted from Islam rather, have used it as a tool to manipulate the masses and to legitimize their rule. This is why even concepts such as, democracy and electoral politics, were initially under much criticism and leaders such as, Bhutto had to assure the public that they were in no way contradictory to Islamic principles. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">When considering Socialism in the context of the Pakistani society, it is essential to view the compatibility between socialist principles and Islam to reach any conclusion. Bhutto himself, in his essay “Political Development in Pakistan”, states that there is no incompatibility between Islam and socialism. He uses Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah and Allama Iqbal’s vision of Pakistan to justify socialism. He claims that they both dreamt of a country established on Islamic principles with a socialist economy (Grover, 245). The concept of egalitarianism is one of the foremost essentials in an Islamic society. Islam preaches that in the eyes of God all men are equal and a higher status is accorded only to those who are more God-fearing. In this sense, Socialism and Islam are essentially attempting to achieve similar ends. Social equality and justice cannot exist in the presence of economic disparity. Bhutto, therefore, introduced the concept of “Islamic Socialism”. This implied the development of an egalitarian society on Islamic principles.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">However, as astute as Bhutto was, he failed to realize that the comparison of Islam with socialism simply on the rhetoric of egalitarianism is not enough. He could not justify this on philosophical grounds as to how he was comparing an ideology based on materialism with religion which has its foundations on transcendental reality. Perhaps the most fatal blow that socialism suffered was at the hands of the religious circles. Nadeem Farooq Paracha, an eminent writer of the left in Pakistan, views the failure of Islamic Socialism in Pakistan and much of the Arab world because of the clergy. Traditional Islamic scholarship has always viewed socialism to be an anti-religious creed. However, the divergence is simply not on philosophical grounds and the ground realities must not be ignored. Nadeem Paracha points out that much of the clergy, especially those in politics themselves, come from the landed aristocracy which makes them skeptical of socialist policies in the first place. This brand of socialism tried to emphasize those aspects of Islam which are in harmony with modern socialist ideals however; at this they were criticized of wrongly interpreting the holy text. Furthermore, in the case of the Pakistani society issues such as drinking, music, cinema etc, have mostly been disapproved of and the modernist regime of Bhutto was strongly condemned by the ulema (Paracha). Besides this, some religious Ulema were against the policy of land reforms based on their school of thought. Scholars such as Muhammad Taqi Usmani asserted that the ceilings or limitations on land holding, such as the ones proposed through land reforms, had no place in Islam. Also, the state does not possess the right to forcefully acquire land from some party for the purpose of redistribution (Web). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">In this discussion, it is also imperative to consider the role of ideology in general. In world politics, hard core ideology cannot sustain if it does not mould itself to the social, political and cultural setup of a society. In his essay “Interaction of Ideology and Strategy in Pakistan’s Domestic Politics”, Khalid Javed Makhdoom explains the problem ideology has to face in opposition of realism and pragmatism (Grover, 528). The PPP claims that Bhutto envisioned a Pakistan in which power was invested in the hands of the masses. He brought to the forefront an ideology that was the voice of the working class, however, political expediency demanded something else. His socialism was the idea of a “mixed economy”. This implied that he could not essentially hurt the big entrepreneurs and could not break their grip of the economy. The measures he could in reality take were not enough to reform the established capitalist system. Therefore, the inefficacy of policies such as nationalization and Land Reform owe to the imbalance between ideology and realism. Bhutto, unfortunately, was unable to attain the right balance and tilted too much towards expediency leaving ideology in the b</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%; text-indent: 0.5in;">ackground.</span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Purely socialist oratory and ideals, to break away from the “Jagirdari” system in Pakistan, had to be put in accordance to the social and political setup of the country. It was not plausible to raise slogans of socialism and implement those policies in a country where funding for the election campaign comes from big landlords and industrialists. Moreover, the majority of the vote bank resides in rural areas where voting decisions are decided by the tribal chiefs or the bigger landlords (Sayeed, 46). Sayeed points out that in viewing the structure of the PPP at the time of Bhutto, it was visible that the upper positions were occupied by those belonging to the upper middle strata, however, a large number of active workers were industrial laborers, small shop owners and workers. Relations between the upper and lower levels of leadership weakened and more and more workers belonging to the peasantry and the working classes began to leave the PPP. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">When Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s daughter, Benazir, came to power in 1988, she had to face entirely different political realities. She came to the forefront after Pakistan had been ruled by an army dictator for several years. It was imperative for her to deal with the new issues at hand such as relations with the US and the military (Grover, 447). She could not afford to sustain the concept of socialism at that point in time when communism was declining throughout the world. For many analysts, the decline of the socialist ideology was apparent when the USSR fell in 1991. As US had emerged as the victor from the cold war, it was essential for Benazir to look towards maintaining cordial relations with it. Hailing from a modern upper class family and being exposed to secular Western education, she became the target of much criticism by the Ulema and religious circles (Malik, 162). Pakistan had been exposed to Islamization policies for a while now and Benazir thought it in her best interest to adopt practices such as the “chaddar” and “Tasbih” to appease the religious faction. Upon assuming power, she made the deep-seated decision of pursuing a capitalist system for Pakistan, keeping in view the global context. She disregarded much of the socialist ideas without providing solid reasons (Shafqat, 658). During both her tenures, Benazir stayed far from nationalization policies, in fact in 1990 she ordered privatization of around 14 units. In her second tenure, the private sector even went as far as entering railway, telecommunication, energy and transport (Bhowmik, 931). This was a move much in contrast to socialist agenda of arguing for important industries such as these, which are essentially the backbone of an economy to be under state control. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">After the death of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, PPP split into many factions. Benazir had to deal with the issue of keeping the party together and to continue the struggle for democracy. Professor Khalid Mahmud sheds light on these splits and describes them as the confedralists, the leftists and the pro party establishment group (Mahmud, 144). It is evident that in the wake of Islamization policies, Benazir looked for support in the Western and particularly US block to rally and legitimize support. She now considered the US to be her constituency for gathering support and coming to power. However, this move of hers was strongly criticized by the leftist factions in PPP. To their disappointment, it was obvious that she had abandoned the path of “anti imperialist” policies unlike her father, but much like him she also preferred the politics of expediency, although with regards to different issues. Moreover, eminent names in the party such as Mumtaz Bhutto and Hafeez Pirzada who had also been close associates of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto had split ways with the mainstream PPP leadership. This perplexed the leftist circles even more and created more controversy about Benazir’s ability to lead her party through the turmoil (Mahmud, 145). Maliha Lodhi, who has enjoyed an illustrious career in Pakistan’s Foreign Service, also analyzes this aspect of Benazir’s leadership in her article “25 years of the PPP”. It was Benazir who shifted the focus of the party from socialism to social democracy. Although the outburst of socialism had by the 1990s diminished to a great extent, however, the PPP is still known among the common man as the party that forwards the upward mobility of the oppressed classes (Lodhi, 311). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Pakistan’s strategic location has turned out to be quite unlucky for it. Due to this fact, Pakistan has remained in the eyes of superpowers such as the USA and the USSR. During the cold war years, it was in USSR’s interest to ally with Pakistan and underdeveloped countries would always prove easier grounds for the propagation of socialist ideologies. Although Pakistan never became an outright ally of the USSR, it has in fact, throughout most of history, remained loyal to the US. Rampant corruption and disrespect for merit, lack of envisioned leadership and institutional imbalance has been Pakistan’s plight. Unfortunately, Pakistani leadership has always looked towards the West to legitimize its rule rather than its own masses. This is to a great extent owed to the reality that colonialism might have ended but imperialism has not. Pakistan has remained dependant economically on the US especially. The strategic location as regards to India and the two major wars that Pakistan had experienced always left Pakistan dependent on the US, either for arms or other forms of foreign aid. Be it the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan or the September 11<sup>th</sup> attacks, US has always used Pakistan for its own interests. This realization has created a lot of anti-American sentiment, not only in the masses but also among the intellectual circles of Pakistan. Hamid H. Kazilbash, in “Anti Americanism in Pakistan”, sheds light on the aspect of American control over Pakistani politics. In fact, it is assumed by the masses to a great extent that the fate of leadership and rule is in the hands of the White House (Kazilbash, 62). It is pertinent for parties to take notice of this important fact. The US has been responsible for mentoring authoritarian dictatorships in Pakistan such as that of President Zia-ul-Haq. Therefore, when Benazir Bhutto had to assume power it was impossible for her to ignore this colossal influence that US exercised. Taking an anti imperialist stance like her father was not what the situation demanded of her. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><br /></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Considering the case of the Pakistan People’s Party, it can be deduced that Z.A Bhutto’s socialist policies fell prey to the institutional imbalance between the bureaucracy and the politicians, most of whom hailed from the aristocracy and who never let national interest take precedence over vested interest. Moreover, Maliha Lodhi sheds light on an altogether different aspect of Z.A Bhutto’s case. She points towards the fact the political circumstances at the time that Bhutto ran for elections were ripe for a socialist change. Ayub Khan’s authoritarian rule had lead to the accumulation of wealth in the hands of a few big families and economic disparity was unbridled. In such a situation, Bhutto strung the right chord by raising the slogan of “<i>rotti kapra makan</i>” and showing them the dream of a classless and just society (Lodhi, 311). Therefore, in this respect his commitment to ideology can be viewed with some skepticism. Benazir Bhutto inherited more complex circumstances, in which she not only had to legitimize her position, but also look to keeping the party together. She saw the United States as her savior and so joined the line of many of the opportunistic and power driven politicians of Pakistan. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Supporters of the Pakistan People’s Party today contend that although they now look towards being a social democracy, the party does retain much of its original character of being a voice for the downtrodden masses. This argument can be viewed by looking at the party’s 2008 manifesto. Claims such as provision of education, healthcare and sanitation are much similar to their initial claims and are much like the claims of most socialist parties. Due to the change in global politics and the world scenario today, it is quite unthinkable to adopt policies such as nationalization and land reform. This also partly owed to the fact that once these policies encountered failure in the 1970s, people are unlikely to restore their faith in them again unless or until they are assured of their success in the form of determined and willful leadership. M.B Naqvi in his article “PPP: The party continues” puts forth the fact that now no matter what ideology a party adopts in its manifesto, it is of no use to the common man whose economic position does not depend on promises but on what action a party takes on assuming power (Grover, 459). <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">Furthermore, when considering ground realities, many supporters of the party today argue that socialist ideologies have now become part of history especially after the fall of the USSR. Pakistan is now beset with new problems such as terrorism, although economic tribulations remain. In such circumstances, the party has to look towards stabilizing Pakistan’s image in the Western world and to fight stereotyped conceptions of Pakistan portrayed in the Western media. Moreover, it is also claimed that the essential nature of socialist policies or the ends that they try to achieve as regards bringing economic equality are still dear to the PPP. This is manifested in their initiatives such as The Benazir Income Support Program. This program aims at providing income to 40 % of the families living below the poverty line (BISP).<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;">The implementation of socialist policies, especially in a country like Pakistan, requires headstrong leadership and revolutionary change. Rejecting imperialism is no easy task for the leadership of any third world country. Although socialism, unlike hardcore Marxism, does not rely as much on revolution, reform in the case of Pakistan could not work because of the socio-economic realities. Z.A. Bhutto, however, can perhaps hold claim to the revolutionary task of enlightening the masses about their status. It was the first time in the history of Pakistan that some leader belonging to the upper stratum of society stood up and made them realize the exploitation and oppression they were subject to. Although Bhutto was possibly the only leader in Pakistan to have experienced such ground swelling, his effort of reforming from within the existing framework failed terribly. Moreover, Pakistan’s legacy is unfortunate in this respect that politics of expediency end up taking precedence over any ideology or vision and PPP’s shift from being a party for change to a party supporting status quo is very much owed to this reality. <o:p></o:p></span><br /><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span><br /><span style="color: red; font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 150%;"><b><u>Written By: Chanel Khaliq</u></b></span></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8809278182473248096.post-88671008230264334532012-04-29T15:50:00.000-07:002012-08-01T01:17:53.494-07:00Pakistan and Central Asia : The New Great Game<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeP_LWGAGlgGnaC73Lh7jwlxz_bBuXS9yrCn6g6YyBiU4re6h8Ow-RkvofCX-H6TvoXdqL2qhL4gKT_U_45keitk0hZl3_aUGGlVttfNUyYJSQTmhynjT7fKJaDFxV255DzJg3WnL_wHs/s1600/mtt-central-asia-the-five-central-asian-republics-cars-are-spread-over-an-area-of-1-6-million-square-miles2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjeP_LWGAGlgGnaC73Lh7jwlxz_bBuXS9yrCn6g6YyBiU4re6h8Ow-RkvofCX-H6TvoXdqL2qhL4gKT_U_45keitk0hZl3_aUGGlVttfNUyYJSQTmhynjT7fKJaDFxV255DzJg3WnL_wHs/s320/mtt-central-asia-the-five-central-asian-republics-cars-are-spread-over-an-area-of-1-6-million-square-miles2.jpg" width="318" /></a></div><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Few had imagined that Rudyard Kipling’s picaresque novel “Kim” would be remembered as such an apt satire on the political affairs of the region. The old great game has ended and today the politics of the post colonial world is quite distinct from the past. Independent states have now come about to establish their self-rule and sovereignty. Nevertheless, an end to colonialism must not be equated to an end to imperialism as well. The aim to establish control and maximize domination continues to direct international affairs till today. Newly independent states as well as superpowers continue to aspire to establish hegemony but the players and the means of the great game have changed. The old Great Game emerged when the Russian and British empires struggled for dominance in the region. Today the economic resources of the central Asia have raised its importance in the region with China, Iran, Turkey and Pakistan all aiming to establish relations such that their countries can benefit from the Central Asian oil and gas. Pakistan specifically due to a host of factors has lost a chance of doing so mainly due to US influence on its foreign policy and the situation in Afghanistan. This paper will examine what were the exact circumstances that prevented this relationship from flourishing. Moreover, future prospects for Pakistan will also be analyzed as regards its position of being one of the major contenders in the region. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> Afghanistan has been the bone of contention for centuries and continues to be so today. Its strategic location and importance has caused several powers to attempt to establish control over it. The nineteenth century saw the Russian and British empires competing for supremacy and control throughout the world. This led them to colonize various lands and cultures. Both powers attempted to establish control over the most prized lands and Afghanistan due to its prime location was significant. The British suspected that after establishing control in most of Central Asia, the Russians would move towards Afghanistan since it would help them gain access to a sea route through the Indian sub continent. This was alarming for the British as the Indian sub continent was considered the “jewel in the crown” for the British Empire. The situation reached somewhat of a halt in 1907 when the Anglo-Russian agreement was signed and both powers agreed to contain their advances and define their spheres of influence<a href="http://eastwestreview.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=46:the-great-game-imperial-rivalry-between-britain-and-russia-in-the-19th-century&catid=50:winter-2007&Itemid=56" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[1]</span></span></span></a> . However in foreign policy, interests end up taking precedence disregarding historical relations and similarly the situation changed between Russia and Britain. With new powers such as Germany and USA coming to the forefront, world politics took a different turn. The two empires lost their strength and later in World War II ended up becoming allies. With the new political situation, the old great game drifted into the past as the empires involved lost their glory. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></div><a name='more'></a><br /><br /><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">Soviet hegemony in Central Asia can be traced back to the 18<sup>th</sup> century. Two phases majorly define Russian domination of the region of Kazakhstan; the first from 1731 to 1854 and then from 1865 to 1881. This followed a period of immense transformation and change. The populace was a mix of a variety of ethnicities, and most of them were culturally well wedded to Islamic norms. The Russians at first considered it expedient not to interfere with the cultural set up but to focus on urbanization and development. Around 1926, communist reforms took hold and a ban was put on religious propaganda and schooling. The script was changed from Arabic to Latin and the entire clergy was now dependant on the centralized Soviet system<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[2]</span></span></span> . The Soviet efforts although prioritized centralization in economic terms but in terms of politics, they favored setting up of a political elite. Also through conscious efforts of movement and migration, they altered the natural ethnic composition of these lands. These steps were to have far flung consequences on the future of these countries even after independence from the USSR. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">After US emerged as the victor from the cold war, Pakistan lost all strategic value for it. US left Afghanistan as well without any reconstruction initiatives or infrastructure building. The decade of the 1990s saw “Islamic fundamentalism” other such movements as the next menace after the decline of communism. Building ties with the newly independent Central Asian Republics was crucial for Pakistan at this moment. These states possessed rich mineral resources and also a similar cultural and historical background. On the other hand the Central Asian states wanted to assert their identity and independence and to free themselves of Russia’s patronage. The southern side seemed an attractive option for the Central Asian Republics to build up ties with. Due to their secular politics, India appeared as the most suitable option. However Pakistan was also a major contender in the region especially with regards the fact that it was the rightful heir of the Muslims tradition and rule in the sub continent <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[3]</span></span></span>.Moreover strengthening of ties with India was a plausible option since India sided with the communist USSR right from the beginning.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> Nevertheless, Pakistan was a most viable option due to geographical proximity foremost. The Special Technical Assistance Program was started under which Pakistan provided training and courses to Central Asian students in English, diplomacy and a variety of other subjects<a href="http://www.asc-centralasia.edu.pk/Issue_65/06_Pakistan_Policy_Towards_Central_Asia.html" name="_ftnref4" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[4]</span></span></span></a> .Although after the fall of communism in these states, religious freedom did find its place, nevertheless the long standing secular mindset could not be eradicated in a short time. This is why these states were initially apprehensive of developing stronger ties with Iran fearing the export of a revolution. Pakistan seemed a safe option as no strong religious movements were thriving in Pakistan at that time. Turkey was also not a priority for the Central Asian states since they had long sustained a history of Turkish domination and they were now looking forward to self assertion. Furthermore, Pakistan provided a reliable sea route for trade and commerce and so relations building with Pakistan became an important foreign policy concern for these newly independent states as well. Therefore they have shown considerable support towards Pakistan. Islam Karimov, of Uzbekistan pressed that a solution to the Kashmir dispute through peaceful means was essential in order to maintain peace and stability in the region. The Foreign Minister of the ECO has also asserted a similar claim that the Kashmir issue is central to peace in the region and must be resolved according to the United Nations resolutions<a href="http://http//www.cacianalyst.org/?q=node/3979" name="_ftnref5" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[5]</span></span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">By far the major stalemate in the relations between the Central Asian Republics and Pakistan has been the situation in Afghanistan. Pakistan’s policy towards Afghanistan has been whimsical and ineffective. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 was a landmark event in the history of the region. It became the central focus for the United States as the intensity of the cold war reached new heights. The US viewed Pakistan as an ally through which it could rid the region of Soviet interference. During the 1990s Pakistan viewed their support for the Taliban as a guarantee of stability in both the countries. This fateful decision was advocated by the military who believed that a strong government such as that of the Taliban could ensure peace between the warring ethnicities in Afghanistan at the time. Moreover the Pakistani government at the time had to deal with local pressure itself arising from the vast Pashtun population in Pakistan, many of whom ideologically supported the Taliban at that time <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[6]</span></span></span>.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> The decision to support the Taliban however was not simply based on the idea of supporting US interests but also keeping in view the Indian threat. Pakistan at the time considered that based on their support to the Taliban, the Taliban would in turn provide Pakistan with any support in the future to maintain peace. Although this view was controversial however Pakistan military were adamant on the idea due to the magnified threat of India<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[7]</span></span></span>. The ISI contained many strong elements in support of the Taliban till a long while and this reality continued to perplex the US as well. The Central Asian Republics viewed the Taliban as a menace in the region. This was partly owed to the fact that these countries had a populace of diverse ethnicities and the Taliban government was hostile to all apart from the Pashtuns in Afghanistan. This is why Tajikistan and Uzbekistan had been supporting leaders of the Northern Alliance providing them with arms and support in their struggle against the Taliban. Perhaps Turkmenistan was the only exception who had taken a friendly stance towards the Taliban regime <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[8]</span></span></span>.With the Taliban government coming to power in 1996, world opinion became antagonistic towards Pakistan as well since Pakistan was one of the three states in the entire world to support and recognize the new government in Afghanistan. Moreover the internal degenerating conditions of Afghanistan lead the drug trade to flourish there and this was having consequences for the neighboring countries. One of the major problems that perplexed the Central Asian Republics was the illegal drug flow into their countries from Afghanistan <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[9]</span></span></span>.This was creating issues of law and order and crime even in Pakistan however the military regimes chose to ignore it and gave precedence to allying with the US. This companionship of Pakistan with the Taliban regime alienated the Central Asian Republics who felt that strong links with such a country would export similar radicalism and extremism to their lands about which they were highly apprehensive. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> Due to their historical communist background, the Central Asian states were disinclined towards religious extremism. These societies had been brought up on secular lines by the USSR and now even after independence they naturally held on to much of Russian influence and ideology. They did not experience any nationalist movements or struggle for liberation. In fact upon the brink of independence these countries found themselves with previous communist leaders as their head of states. Therefore the secular tilt made them apprehensive of strictly Islamic movements and slogans. The Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) was one such movement that was headed by Juma Namangani and consisted of Uzbek and Tajik radicals. Although their ideology was unclear however in order to gain power and create civil strife they played the religious card in Uzbekistan <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[10]</span></span></span>.They were opposed to President Karimov’s regime and after a bloody incident of bombings, many of their leaders and members were arrested by the government. Around the year 2000, due to the political turmoil and arrests, their leader fled to Afghanistan where he found a safe haven with the Taliban. Apart from being strictly opposed to extremist movements, the governments of these states especially in Uzbekistan, were highly averse to anything with even the slightest hint of religion attached to it. During Karimov’s regime, not only was there a complete lack of religious freedom but also every attempt was made to curb political expression and liberty <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[11]</span></span></span>. On the other hand, pursuit of the Islamic ideology has been one of top priorities of every successive Pakistan government, as in most cases it has served to legitimize their rule. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> Pakistan viewed the inception of the Central Asian republics as being of immense economic benefit for itself. The idea was to form regional links with these states as they were regarded as a treasure of untapped mineral resources. Pakistan on the other hand was a viable option for these states as well since they were land locked and they required Pakistan’s support and cooperation. Initially what appeared as a marriage of convenience however could not end up successfully due to several in competencies. The first major step towards economic and trade related cooperation was the entrance of these six countries into the ECO (Economic Cooperation Organization) in 1992. The ECO began in 1985 by Pakistan, Iran and Turkey. It was a successor organization to the RCD (Regional Cooperation for Development). However till much of the decade, trade between ECO countries remained limited. For the Central Asian Republics trading activity with Russia always took precedence. Moreover, most of the member states are semi-industrialized economies which make them dependent on external suppliers <span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[12]</span></span></span>They are more or less on the same standing and majority of exports and produce accounts for raw materials and not finished goods <a href="http://www.asc-centralasia.edu.pk/Issue_65/06_Pakistan_Policy_Towards_Central_Asia.html" name="_ftnref13" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[13]</span></span></span></a>. It is also noteworthy that in case of better quality exports countries in the ECO chose to trade with major trading partners outside the region thereby rendering the function of the ECO ineffective. Also it is challenging for Pakistan and Iran to face competition coming from China and the Far East because of low cost labor available in China especially. This fact explains the trend that the only diversification experienced has been an increase in trade with China by the Central Asian Republics, exposing weaknesses in the ECO. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">The ECO was speculated to provide a golden opportunity for regional trade to flourish and for ties to strengthen between Pakistan and Central Asia however apart from economic constraints, the failure of the project can also be attributed to the leadership. Implementation of economic policies requires a strong stance and focus on the part of the leadership in the region and this was strongly lacking. The decade of the 1990s saw Benazir Bhutto’s and Nawaz Sharif’s governments coming to power and their foreign policy objectives were not far sighted enough to judge the significance of building up this lucrative connection. Successive Pakistani governments remained infatuated with harboring the Islamic ideology mainly to secure their position and to avoid internal strife by religious circles. Furthermore the strong dependence on US meant that Pakistan had to play an important role in the Afghanistan fiasco which ended up putting Pakistan in the Taliban mess. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> With the advent of the 21<sup>st</sup> century Pakistan finds itself amidst new political and strategic conflicts. The global environment is starkly different from what it was when the Russian and British empires were ruling the world. Although the incentives remain more or less the same i.e. economic control leading to political hegemony however the means have changed. Today the situation is far more complex and does not involve only two competing empires rather each country is interested in pursuing its own agenda. The region of Central Asia retains its importance and some such as Ahmed Rasheed hold the view that a new great game has emerged with China, Iran, Turkey and Pakistan.<o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> Pakistan’s role in the new great game depends on how much influence it can exert. It has the options of building oil and gas pipelines such as the most famous intended project of the Iran-Pakistan-India gas pipeline. However for this Pakistan requires major economic cooperation. The Trans-Afghanistan pipeline aimed to transport approximately 33 billion cubic meters of gas from Turkmenistan to Pakistan via Afghanistan. It was to continue from Pakistan to India. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is monitoring the feasibility of the project<a href="http://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National_Office_Pubs/2008/A_Pipeline_Through_a_Troubled_Land.pdf" name="_ftnref14" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[14]</span></span></span></a>. The project has not been able to produce results on ground because Afghanistan continues to be the hub of violence and internal strife. Iran on the other hand is offering a more secure route to Pakistan and India from Turkmenistan, over which US expressed deep concern. The other major player in the new great game Russia remains the largest importer of Turkmenistan’s gas. Despite new avenues opening for Turkmenistan, Russia does not want to see its old patronage slipping away. Despite the fact that old pipelines are almost withering away, an agreement was signed with Russia on rebuilding them. China too is watchful and is building a pipeline to export gas from Turkmenistan<a href="http://www.policyalternatives.ca/sites/default/files/uploads/publications/National_Office_Pubs/2008/A_Pipeline_Through_a_Troubled_Land.pdf" name="_ftnref15" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[15]</span></span></span></a>. The TAPI pipeline has immense prospects of boosting Pakistan’s position in the region and also in increasing stability. If the project is materialized Pakistan can secure royalty from India on the passage of gas to India via the pipeline. This will help to improve the trust deficit that exists between the two neighbors and will promote much needed peace in the region. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"> Another profitable alternative is the Gwadar sea port offers Pakistan a golden opportunity to develop trade links with Central Asia, China and Iran. Iran views the development of the Gwadar port as a threat for its own Chambahar port since now it may distract trade that was previously dependent on Iran’s port. Iran is therefore taking India’s help and making sure that the place of Chambahar port is not lost. China’s interest in Gwadar port was inevitable as it became weary of US troops centered at Western Asian countries. It wanted to secure safer alternative sea routes so that it would not be completely dependent on the ones coming from the Persian Gulf. The first three years of the development process saw rapid progress and raised expectations<span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[16]</span></span></span>. Land prices began to rise upwards and Gwadar began to be viewed as an upcoming port being built on international standards. This raised both local interest as well as chances of further foreign investment. However Balochistan is witnessing separatist movements and they are apprehensive of foreign influence and presence in their land. The attack on Chinese engineers in the year 2004 was a major blow to the project<a href="http://http//www.stimson.org/images/uploads/research-pdfs/GWADAR.pdf" name="_ftnref17" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">[17]</span></span></span></a>. However if Pakistan can pacify local Baloch sentiments and make them stakeholders in the project, Pakistan economy can benefit immensely. The port has the potential to become a hub for trading activities in the region and will pull the attention of the landlocked Central Asian Republics. It can provide a major breakthrough and boost to Pakistan’s relations with these states, which have broken down due to several historical factors. Not only that, with being in control of international trade in the region, Pakistan will not only reap economic benefits but can also affirm itself on political and regional issues. <o:p></o:p></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span></div><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-align: justify; text-indent: .5in;"><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;">For centuries in international affairs, countries have always been struggling and competing for economic control and political hegemony. Powerful nations have in the past exploited the rest of the world through colonization. Today world politics is dominated by controlling energy resources and thereby securing complete hegemony over the rest of the world. The case of the Central Asian Republics is a perfect example of how world powers such as USA, China and Russia are aiming to extract and exploit the treasure of resources found there. Moreover the regional powers such as Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Turkey have also become stakeholders and are making profound attempts to haul out maximum benefit. In the current global situation with regards the issues of terrorism at the forefront of US policy, Central Asian Republics can serve as useful allies. Due to their location they are connected to Pakistan and Afghanistan; the two most troubled regions at present. US wanted that it should guarantee Central Asian support in eradicating terrorists from the region and in this way it would not solely have to rely on Pakistan’s support. Previously with Pakistan experiencing internal problems of inflation, weak governments and terrorism it could not assert its interests out rightly in the great game. However with the current state of affairs, the situation has become more volatile and unpredictable. The end of Osama bin Laden can be viewed as leading to a pulling out of American troops from Afghanistan. An improved peace situation in Afghanistan is what the region has been yearning for for around two decades now and it is something that can lead to peace and more economic development in the region which will be immensely beneficial for Pakistan. <o:p></o:p></span><br /><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><br /></span><br /><span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 150%;"><b><u>Written By: Chanel Khaliq</u></b></span></div><div><div id="ftn17"></div></div></div>Waqas Sikandarihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08608259331974590162noreply@blogger.com0